Journal of Mosquito Research 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 147-160 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 152 as containers, gutters, and discarded tires. In contrast, rural environments provide natural breeding sites like ponds, ditches, and tree holes. Studies have shown that urban mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti, are well-adapted to human-made environments and can thrive in close proximity to human populations (Reinhold et al., 2018). Rural mosquitoes, on the other hand, may have more diverse breeding sites but are less concentrated around human habitats (Okuneye et al., 2019). Figure 2 The Impact of environmental temperature on mosquitoes (Adapted from Reinhold et al., 2018) Image caption: The temperature of the environment (Ta) affects the mosquito development (blue), its activity including host-seeking and blood-meal intake (red), as well as pathogen development and transmission (purple). Consequently, Ta affects species geographic repartition, spatial distribution, and population dynamics (green). The dashed square represents the cycles related to mosquito biology (Adopted from Reinhold et al., 2018) 4.3.2 Impact of human activities on life cycle dynamics Human activities significantly impact mosquito life cycle dynamics in both urban and rural settings. In urban areas, improper waste management and water storage practices create breeding grounds for mosquitoes, leading to higher population densities and increased disease transmission risks (Reinhold et al., 2018). In rural areas, agricultural practices and deforestation can alter natural habitats, affecting mosquito breeding sites and population dynamics (Ohta and Kaga, 2012). Additionally, the use of insecticides and other control measures can influence mosquito survival and resistance patterns (Agyekum et al., 2021). 5 Adaptation Strategies of Mosquitoes to Environmental Changes 5.1 Genetic adaptations Mosquitoes exhibit significant genetic adaptations to cope with environmental changes. For instance, the rapid adaptive evolution of diapause programs in Aedes albopictus has been observed, allowing them to synchronize their life cycle with seasonal variations, particularly in response to winter conditions (Batz et al., 2020). Additionally, Aedes aegypti exhibits strong genomic adaptation signals under different climatic conditions, and specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) exhibit strong genomic signals of adaptation to different climatic conditions. Bennett et al. (2021), across 128 candidate SNPs, used GDM and GF analysis to visualize the change in frequencies of Aedes aegypti across Panama. GDM analysis presented a smoother turnover in the geographical distribution of putatively adaptive loci than that of putatively neutral loci (Figure 3). In the Anopheles gambiae complex, genetic differentiation between rural and urban populations has been driven by
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