Journal of Mosquito Research 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 147-160 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 149 2.2Larva 2.2.1 Water quality and temperature Water quality and temperature are critical for the development of mosquito larvae. Studies have shown that the survival and development rates of larvae are significantly affected by temperature. For instance, Anopheles gambiae larvae have optimal survival rates at temperatures between 16°C and 34°C, with extreme temperatures leading to higher mortality rates (Bayoh and Lindsay, 2004). Additionally, water quality factors such as pH and salinity can impact larval development. Aedes aegypti larvae, for example, show 100% lethality at an acidic pH of 4, with optimal development occurring at a pH of 6 (Torres et al., 2022). 2.2.2 Nutrient availability Nutrient availability is another crucial factor influencing larval development. The quantity and quality of food available to larvae can affect their growth and survival rates. In a study on Anopheles stephensi, larvae reared on a reduced food diet showed lower survival rates and smaller adult sizes compared to those reared on a standard diet (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014). Similarly, the density of larvae and the availability of food can influence the timing of pupation and the overall development period. 2.3Pupa 2.3.1 Environmental triggers for pupation Environmental factors such as temperature, food availability, and larval density can trigger pupation in mosquitoes. For instance, a study on Florida mosquitoes found that lower food quantities, higher larval densities, and increased salinity delayed the onset of pupation and prolonged the pupal stage. Additionally, temperature plays a significant role, with higher temperatures accelerating the development from larva to pupa (Agyekum et al., 2021). 2.3.2 Survival rates under different conditions Survival rates of pupae are influenced by environmental conditions, particularly temperature. Anopheles gambiae pupae have been shown to have the highest survival rates at moderate temperatures, with extreme temperatures leading to increased mortality (Bayoh and Lindsay, 2004). Furthermore, the synchronization of pupal ecdysis can be enhanced by manipulating environmental factors such as light cycles, food availability, and larval density. 2.4Adult 2.4.1 Environmental influences on emergence The emergence of adult mosquitoes is influenced by the environmental conditions experienced during the larval and pupal stages. Temperature, in particular, has a significant impact on the timing and success of adult emergence. For example, higher temperatures during the larval stages result in smaller adults and can affect the timing of egg laying and hatching in adult females (Christiansen-Jucht et al., 2015). Additionally, the quality of the larval habitat, including nutrient availability and water quality, can influence the size and reproductive success of emerging adults (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014). 2.4.2 Lifespan and reproductive factors The lifespan and reproductive success of adult mosquitoes are shaped by the environmental conditions experienced during their immature stages. Higher rearing temperatures have been shown to decrease the longevity, body size, and fecundity of adult Anopheles mosquitoes (Agyekum et al., 2021). Moreover, the larval diet can affect adult survival and reproductive traits, with adults reared on a reduced food diet showing lower reproductive success and shorter lifespans (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014). These findings highlight the importance of considering environmental variation at all life stages to better understand mosquito population dynamics and disease transmission potential. 3 Environmental Factors Affecting Mosquito Life Cycles 3.1 Temperature 3.1.1 Effects on development rates Temperature is a critical factor influencing the development rates of mosquitoes. Studies have shown that higher
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