Journal of Mosquito Research 2024, Vol.14, No.2, 100-110 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 103 (Giuliano et al., 2018), In regions like northern Vietnam the abundance of mosquito larvae is higher in altered landscapes such as rice fields and ditches particularly during the rainy season (Ohba et al., 2015). 3.2.2 Monoculture vs. polyculture and their impacts The type of crop cultivation whether monoculture or polyculture can influence mosquito habitats. Monoculture practices such as extensive rice farming often lead to landscape homogenization which can create uniform and extensive breeding sites for mosquitoes. In contrast polyculture practices that incorporate diverse crops and maintain habitat heterogeneity can support a variety of species including natural mosquito predators. Organic farming practices which often involve polyculture have been shown to support higher biodiversity and potentially reduce mosquito populations by promoting the presence of natural predators (Katayama et al., 2019). 3.3 Use of pesticides and chemical inputs 3.3.1 Effects on non-target species The use of pesticides in agriculture can have detrimental effects on non-target species including natural predators of mosquitoes. For instance the application of herbicides and insecticides in rice fields has been shown to reduce the diversity and abundance of beneficial insects such as butterflies and orthopterans which can indirectly affect mosquito populations by disrupting ecological balances (Giuliano et al., 2018), Additionally the historical use of highly toxic pesticides in rice farming has had significant negative impacts on various taxa including aquatic plants and invertebrates (Katayama et al., 2015). 3.3.2 Development of pesticide-resistant mosquito populations The extensive use of chemical pesticides in agriculture can lead to the development of pesticide-resistant mosquito populations. Studies have documented varying levels of resistance to common insecticides among mosquito species in agricultural areas. For example Culex pipiens pallens in Shandong Province China has developed high resistance to cypermethrin and deltamethrin moderate resistance to dichlorvos and low resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) (Wang et al., 2020), This resistance complicates mosquito control efforts and necessitates the development of integrated pest management strategies. 3.4 Agricultural waste management 3.4.1 Organic waste and mosquito breeding sites Improper management of organic waste in agricultural settings can create additional breeding sites for mosquitoes. Organic waste such as decaying plant material and livestock manure can accumulate in water bodies providing nutrient-rich environments for mosquito larvae. Effective waste management practices are essential to reduce the availability of such breeding sites and control mosquito populations. 3.4.2 Impact of livestock waste on mosquito populations Livestock waste can also contribute to the proliferation of mosquito breeding sites. The presence of livestock near agricultural fields can lead to the contamination of water bodies with organic matter which can support the development of mosquito larvae. Studies have shown that the density of mosquito larvae is influenced by the physicochemical characteristics of their breeding habitats including the presence of organic matter (Wang et al., 2020), Therefore managing livestock waste effectively is crucial for controlling mosquito populations in agricultural landscapes. 4 Case Study 4.1 Case study 1: rice cultivation in Southeast Asia 4.1.1 Agricultural practices and mosquito habitat creation Rice cultivation in Southeast Asia often involves extensive irrigation systems that create ideal breeding habitats for malaria vectors particularly Anopheles mosquitoes. The continuous flooding of rice fields provides stable aquatic environments conducive to mosquito larval development. Studies have shown that intermittent flooding as opposed to continuous flooding can significantly reduce the density of Anopheles larvae. For instance in Malanville Benin intermittent flooding reduced larval density by up to 80.8% during certain rice growth stages compared to continuous flooding (Djégbe et al., 2020). Additionally the volatiles emitted by rice plants attract
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