Journal of Mosquito Research 2024, Vol.14, No.2, 87-99 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 89 Anophelinae and Culicinae subfamilies during the early Jurassic period (Lorenz et al., 2021). Additionally, phylogenetic studies can inform public health strategies by identifying species complexes and cryptic species that may have different vectorial capacities, as seen in the analysis of the Anopheles neivai species (López-Rubio et al., 2019). 3.2 Common phylogenetic methods used Several phylogenetic methods are commonly employed in mosquito research, including Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Bayesian Inference (BI). These methods provide robust frameworks for constructing phylogenetic trees and estimating divergence times. For example, Bayesian relaxed clock methods were used to estimate divergence times in a study of Neotropical mosquitoes, providing robust support for the monophyly of several mosquito tribes (Lorenz et al., 2021). Similarly, ML and BI analyses were utilized to investigate the phylogenetic relationships within the Culex pipiens complex, revealing intricate patterns of genetic differentiation and historical admixture (Figure 1) (Aardema et al., 2020). Other methods, such as phylogenetic networks and SNP barcoding, have also been applied to uncover evolutionary patterns and species identification (López-Rubio et al., 2019; Swain et al., 2019). 3.3 Challenges and limitations in phylogenetic studies Phylogenetic studies in mosquitoes face several challenges and limitations. One major challenge is the resolution of phylogenetic relationships among closely related species or within species complexes, as seen in the Culex pipiens complex, where ongoing genetic exchange and historical admixture obscure clear evolutionary histories (Aardema et al., 2020). Additionally, the choice of genetic markers and the quality of sequence data can significantly impact the results. For instance, the COI gene has been widely used for DNA barcoding, but it may not always provide sufficient resolution to distinguish between closely related species, as observed in British mosquitoes (Anoopkumar et al., 2019). Furthermore, the variability in phylogenetic relationships depending on the method used (e.g., concatenated vs. partitioned analyses) and the number of taxa sampled can complicate the interpretation of results (Lorenz et al., 2021). Finally, the integration of morphological, behavioral, and ecological data with molecular phylogenetics is essential for a comprehensive understanding of mosquito evolution and vectorial capacity (Anoopkumar et al., 2019; López-Rubio et al., 2019). 4 Global Diversity of Mosquito Species 4.1 Regional distribution and diversity patterns Mosquito species exhibit significant regional diversity and distribution patterns influenced by various ecological and environmental factors. In the Caatinga biome of Brazil, a study identified 82 morphospecies, with 47 species unique to specific areas, highlighting the region's high mosquito diversity and the importance of environmental heterogeneity in shaping these patterns (Andrade et al., 2020). Similarly, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, mosquito diversity was assessed across urban, periurban, and rural landscapes, revealing higher species richness in rural areas and significant habitat segregation along an urban-forest gradient (Câmara et al., 2020). In Saudi Arabia, the phylogenetic analysis of Anopheles species from different zoogeographic zones demonstrated the region's diverse mosquito fauna, influenced by its unique geographic position (Munawar et al., 2020). In Honduras, the distribution and genetic diversity of Anopheles species were studied, with Anopheles albimanus being the most widespread, indicating the importance of both taxonomic and molecular approaches in understanding regional mosquito diversity (Escobar et al., 2020). 4.2 Endemic and invasive species Endemic and invasive mosquito species play crucial roles in local and global ecosystems. The Culex pipiens complex, which includes several taxa of medical importance, presents phylogenetic challenges due to historical and contemporary admixture, highlighting the complexity of endemic species' evolutionary trajectories (Figure 2) (Aardema et al., 2021). Invasive species such as Aedes albopictus, the Asian tiger mosquito, have shown distinct genetic clusters in Reunion Island and Europe, suggesting independent invasion histories and significant genetic diversity in long-established populations (Sherpa et al., 2018). The global evaluation of the Culex pipiens complex further underscores the intricate taxonomic relationships and admixture within this group, with implications for
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