International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation 2024, Vol.14, No.2, 109-121 http://ecoevopublisher.com/index.php/ijmec 116 highlight the need for climate-adaptive management practices, such as incorporating climate models into conservation planning to identify areas that will remain suitable for tamarins under different climate scenarios (Rezende et al., 2020). Despite these challenges, the continued focus on habitat connectivity and adaptive management offers hope for mitigating the impacts of climate change on this endangered species. Figure 3 Visual comparison between actual vegetation map and biome distribution simulated by the model for present-day (1961–1990) scenario (Adopted from Raghunathan et al., 2015) Note: Map on right adapted fromInstituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatı´sticas, The figure shows the phenomenon of subtropical forest biomes being replaced by tropical rainforests, with the most significant changes occurring under the A2 scenario. The figure aims to illustrate the differences between the model-predicted biome distribution and the actual vegetation map, helping to understand the impact of climate change on different biomes (Adapted from Raghunathan et al., 2015). 8 Climate Change, Human Activities, and Primate Conservation 8.1 Interaction between climate change and anthropogenic pressures Climate change and human activities, such as deforestation, agriculture, and hunting, are increasingly intersecting to amplify threats to primate populations. As climate change shifts habitats and alters the availability of resources, primates are forced into smaller, fragmented areas, often closer to human populations. This proximity exacerbates pressures from hunting and agricultural expansion. For instance, in China, human activities combined with climate change have significantly reduced the habitats of many primate species, pushing them into isolated and vulnerable populations (Li et al., 2023). Additionally, in regions like the Amazon, the expansion of agriculture and cattle ranching has driven deforestation, which, when coupled with climate-induced changes, further fragments primate habitats, making it difficult for species to survive (Costa-Araújo et al., 2022). The cumulative effect of these pressures has led to an increase in the extinction risk for many primates, with climate change acting as a multiplier of existing threats. 8.2 Role of Protected Areas and Their Effectiveness in a Changing Climate Protected areas (PAs) have long been the cornerstone of conservation strategies, providing refuges for primates and other wildlife. However, the effectiveness of these areas is being challenged by climate change. As climate conditions shift, some PAs may no longer provide suitable habitats for the species they were designed to protect. In Indonesia, for example, studies have shown that many protected areas will experience significant declines in species richness under future climate scenarios, raising concerns about their long-term viability (Condro et al., 2021). Moreover, the rigid boundaries of PAs may prevent species from migrating to more suitable habitats as the climate changes, leading to localized extinctions. Despite these challenges, there is evidence that PAs can still play a crucial role in mitigating climate impacts, especially when they are strategically expanded or connected through ecological corridors (Moraes et al., 2020). Adaptive management practices that incorporate climate projections into conservation planning are essential to enhance the resilience of PAs in the face of ongoing environmental changes.
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