Triticeae Genomics and Genetics, 2025, Vol.16, No.3, 130-137 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/tgg 133 resist diseases or not also depends on whether the environment is suitable or not. Once G×E interaction occurs, it may cause varieties that originally performed well to "fail" somewhere else (Rakoczy-Trojanowska et al., 2021). For instance, some rye varieties have been able to maintain a stable disease defense line for several years and multiple pilot projects, but others are "picky about the environment", and their performance immediately changes when the climate or the type of pathogen is changed (Safonova and Aniskov, 2022). Of course, there are now new tools in breeding. For instance, genomics has been able to identify some key genes involved in stress responses, which presents a great opportunity for breeding new disease-resistant varieties (Lin et al., 2024). 4.3 Nitrogen use efficiency and its contribution to yield and quality While other grains are still relying on fertilization to boost their yields, rye has long been doing more work with less fertilizer. Especially in the application of nitrogen fertilizers, its efficiency is so high that it is enviable (Milczarski et al., 2011). Part of the reason is that its physiological structure is "energy-saving", and the other part is that it has the ability to save fat in its genes. In many low-investment systems, it can grow steadily and well, which is very attractive to those engaged in sustainable agriculture. If rain-fed conditions are encountered, improving nitrogen utilization efficiency is quite crucial. On the one hand, the yield is less likely to drop; on the other hand, the quality can also be maintained. After all, when there is too much nitrogen, the processing characteristics of grains may be affected instead (Moskal et al., 2021). Fortunately, with the availability of tools such as molecular markers and genomic resources, breeders are increasingly capable of precisely identifying varieties with higher nutrient utilization efficiency, ensuring both yield and quality are not compromised. 5 Case Studies: Multi-Environment Trial Results in Typical Regions 5.1 Rye cultivar adaptability in Eastern European rainfed areas The climate changes year by year, and the output fluctuates up and down accordingly. In Eastern Europe, especially in the winter rye growing areas of Russia, this phenomenon is actually not new. Safonova and Aniskov (2023) analyzed a large amount of multi-environmental test data and found that climate change almost "determines" the fluctuations in production, with an impact proportion as high as 79%. However, not all varieties "rise and fall together" in such an environment. In the Kirov region, varieties like "Rafinha" and "Lika" have performed steadily, with yields reaching 5.09 and 5.07 tons per hectare respectively. Their overall adaptability is also good, and their stability is not bad (Parfenova and Psareva, 2024). Of course, there is also a bit of "differentiation". Varieties like "Baptiste" and "Perepel" are also quite good overall, with strong adaptability and stable yields. But teams like "Flora" and "Talica", although they charge ahead fiercely under favorable conditions, may fall behind in a different environment. These differences are actually a reminder to breeders that in rain-fed systems like those in Eastern Europe where the weather is the key, high yields alone are not enough; stable yields are more important. 5.2 Trials and performance of elite cultivars in rainfed regions of Northern China When it comes to growing rye on dry land, northern China is no exception. The planting problems here are well known to all: the climate is unstable, water is tight, and the soil is not ideal either. But precisely under such conditions, rye has become a promising "breakthrough point". Rye is capable of carrying heavy loads and also saves water and fertilizer. These two features are exactly to the taste of the arid regions in the north (Ghafoor et al., 2024). And it's not just the domestic claim; experiments in Europe have also confirmed this point. The ideas and strategies that perform well in those environments, such as focusing on both yield and stability simultaneously, can also be fully applied to variety selection in northern China (Shawon et al., 2024). In rain-fed conditions, this combination of "resilience and efficiency" for rye is clearly useful for both growing and sustaining. 5.3 Experiences and outcomes of international multi-location trials The German side is doing it more systematically. They conducted multi-point experiments using data from over 180 environments to adjust the model and calibrate parameters. Finally, they used these results to guide breeding and management (Figure 2) (Shawon et al., 2024). This is not merely a simple trial planting of a few plots in the field, but involves different soil types and climatic backgrounds. The aim is to select those varieties that have a wide range of adaptability and are not picky about the environment. One more point worth mentioning is that
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