Triticeae Genomics and Genetics, 2025, Vol.16, No.3, 130-137 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/tgg 131 2 Yield Performance of Rye Cultivars across Different Environments 2.1 Yield variation and its dependence on environmental factors What exactly affects the yield of rye? Ultimately, the differences can be quite significant in different places and years. There are quite a few factors influencing it, including climate, soil and management methods, but the most crucial one is actually the environment. Many studies have long pointed out that things like weather that change every year, as well as natural conditions in different locations, often have a greater influence than genes themselves (Laidig et al., 2017). It is even said that 70% of the changes in production can be attributed to environmental factors, especially when the temperature is extreme or there is too much sand in the soil (Zymaroieva and Nykytiuk, 2023). Of course, management is not optional. For instance, how to apply nitrogen fertilizer and how to manage the land can also create a gap in yield. Moreover, in many cases, hybrid varieties perform better, especially when encountering adverse conditions or marginal plots (Ghafoor et al., 2024). 2.2 Stability analysis and identification of high-yielding and stable cultivars Hybrid varieties are good because they have a high average yield, usually 17.9% to 24.9% higher than population varieties. There is no dispute about this in terms of data. But whether it is stable or not is another matter. Especially in scenarios with diseases and high management intensity, their performance may not be so stable (Sulek et al., 2024). Not all varieties are like this. Some exceptions are still worth mentioning. For instance, "Grafinya" and "Lika" have been identified as representatives that balance high yield and stability. They not only have strong adaptability but also perform well in multiple locations and years (Parfenova and Psareva, 2024). The stability indicators commonly used in breeding, such as Shukla variance and the stability index of multiple traits, are precisely designed to select such reliable varieties, making their application more reassuring. 2.3 Main characteristics of genotype × environment (G×E) interactions As for the interaction between varieties and the environment, to put it simply, "relying on the weather for a living" also depends on the variety. The ranking of rye crops may not be the same in different environments - the top spot can change with a different location or year. This kind of "cross-interaction" is not uncommon (Parfenova and Psareva, 2024; Sulek et al., 2024). This is precisely why it is necessary to conduct numerous environmental tests. Otherwise, relying solely on data from one area, it is very difficult to determine whether a variety is truly "universal". Some varieties rush forward as soon as conditions improve, while others can hold their ground under pressure. This difference stems from the G×E effect. Its significance also lies in reminding us that variety recommendations should not be a one-size-fits-all approach; they should be classified by region if necessary. To analyze these complex interaction relationships, some advanced statistical models are needed, so as to more reliably determine which varieties are suitable for cultivation in which ecological environments (Laidig et al., 2017; Zymaroieva and Nykytiuk, 2023). 3 Environmental Adaptability of Quality Traits 3.1 Regional variation in protein content and nutritional quality The amount of protein it contains is not known only after it is grown, but is closely related to where it is grown, in which year it is grown, and whether there is water or not. This matter cannot be determined by genotype alone. The influence of the environment is greater, especially the two variables of harvest year and regional location. When they change, the protein level varies significantly (Siekmann et al., 2021; St wowost pniewska et al., 2024). To give an extreme example, the protein content of rye grown in the arid areas of Mexico can be as high as 20.3% - 22.8% (Yanez et al., 2023), which to some extent indicates its "tough" ability in harsh environments. By the way, although hybrid varieties produce more, they are not so outstanding in terms of protein and dietary fiber, and are usually lower than population varieties (Figure 1) (Brzozowski et al., 2023). For those who want to pursue high nutritional value, this might require more thought. 3.2 Performance patterns of grain physical traits (thousand-kernel weight, test weight) In addition to nutritional value, another aspect of grain quality that is often examined is physical indicators, such as 1000-grain weight (TKW) and bulk density. These characteristics may seem simple on the surface, but in fact, they are quite influenced by the environment and the variety itself. Multi-environmental experiments have found
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