Triticeae Genomics and Genetics, 2025, Vol.16, No.2, 79-91 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/tgg 89 Importantly, the transgenic barley maintained nearly normal agronomic traits and yield levels while carrying this enhanced disease resistance. Detailed measurements of growth (plant height, development timing, etc.), yield components (spike number, grain number, grain weight), and grain quality indicated that inserting and expressing these antifungal genes did not harm plant growth or reproduction. The gains in disease resistance did not come at the expense of yield or other key traits. These results clearly demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of using transgenic breeding to improve disease resistance in barley. In practical breeding terms, fungus-resistant transgenic barley lines can serve as valuable parent materials. They can be hybridized with conventional barley varieties to introduce the antifungal genes into elite genetic backgrounds, thereby developing new barley cultivars that combine high yield and quality with enhanced disease resistance. This transgenic approach provides a relatively fast and direct way to obtain resistance to diseases for which we currently lack effective resistance genes in the barley gene pool - Fusarium head blight is a prime example of such a disease. Furthermore, transgenic antifungal strategies can be complemented by modern gene editing techniques. For instance, we could use CRISPR-based gene editing to boost the expression or effectiveness of barley’s own defense genes, and simultaneously stack transgenic antifungal genes on top of that. This “double guarantee” strategy could ensure an even more durable and broad-spectrum resistance. From a crop production perspective, improved disease resistance in barley has several benefits. It will reduce the reliance on chemical fungicides, which is both economically and environmentally beneficial - fewer chemicals on the farm means lower input costs and a healthier farm ecosystem. It also means less chemical residue on food and feed, contributing to food safety. Disease-resistant barley can achieve more stable yields, especially in regions or seasons with high disease pressure, thereby improving food security and farmers’ profitability. If barley varieties can better withstand diseases, they can potentially be grown in areas that were previously too risky due to disease outbreaks, expanding the arable range of the crop. For the brewing and feed industries, using disease-resistant barley can reduce the risk of mycotoxin contamination (like DON) in malt and feed, which is a significant food safety improvement. Healthier barley crops produce cleaner grain, which in turn makes safer beer and livestock feed. Also, by lowering crop losses to disease, the supply of barley becomes more reliable, which is economically beneficial for both farmers and industry. Acknowledgments We would like to express our gratitude to the reviewers for their valuable feedback, which helped improve the manuscript. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Al-Sayaydeh R., Ayad J., Harwood W., and Al-Abdallat A., 2024, Stress-inducible expression of HvABF2 transcription factor improves water deficit tolerance in transgenic barley plants, Plants, 13(22): 3113. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13223113 Bollina V., Kumaraswamy G., Kushalappa A., Choo T., Dion Y., Rioux S., Faubert D., and Hamzehzarghani H., 2010, Mass spectrometry-based metabolomics application to identify quantitative resistance-related metabolites in barley against Fusarium head blight, Molecular Plant Pathology, 11(6): 769-782. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1364-3703.2010.00643.x Boni R., Chauhan H., Hensel G., Roulin A., Sucher J., Kumlehn J., Brunner S., Krattinger S., and Keller B., 2017, Pathogen‐inducible Ta‐Lr34res expression in heterologous barley confers disease resistance without negative pleiotropic effects, Plant Biotechnology Journal, 16: 245-253. https://doi.org/10.1111/pbi.12765 Bregitzer P., Zhang S., Cho M., and Lemaux P., 2002, Reduced somaclonal variation in barley is associated with culturing highly differentiated, meristematic tissues, Crop Science, 42: 1303-1308. https://doi.org/10.2135/CROPSCI2002.1303 Burton R., Collins H., Kibble N., Smith J., Shirley N., Jobling S., Henderson M., Singh R., Pettolino F., Wilson S., Bird A., Topping D., Bacic A., and Fincher G., 2011, Over-expression of specific HvCslF cellulose synthase-like genes in transgenic barley increases the levels of cell wall (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucans and alters their fine structure, Plant Biotechnology Journal, 9(2): 117-135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7652.2010.00532.x
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