Triticeae Genomics and Genetics, 2024, Vol.15, No.5, 266-276 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/tgg 272 Additionally, proteases play a crucial role in beer brewing. Proteases break down proteins in malt, generating amino acids and small peptides that not only provide essential nutrients for yeast but also improve the foam stability and flavor of the beer (Benešová et al., 2018). Different proteases exhibit varying activity levels under different temperature and pH conditions, and brewers must skillfully manage these factors to optimize brewing efficiency and the quality of the final product. By leveraging the enzymatic potential of barley, brewers can enhance the mashing and fermentation processes, ultimately producing high-quality beer with desirable sensory attributes and nutritional characteristics. 6 Cultural and Historical Impact of Barley in Agriculture and Brewing 6.1 The historical role of barley in different cultures Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is one of the oldest cultivated crops, with its domestication dating back approximately 10 000 years in the Fertile Crescent (Badr et al., 2000; Mascher et al., 2016). This cereal grain played a crucial role in the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to agrarian communities, serving as a staple food source and a key agricultural product (Pourkheirandish and Komatsuda, 2007; Pourkheirandish et al., 2015). Archaeological evidence indicates that barley was a founder crop in Neolithic agriculture, contributing significantly to the development of early agrarian societies in the Near East (Mascher et al., 2016; Riehl, 2019). Its adaptability to diverse climates and environments allowed it to spread globally, reaching the New World after 1492 and achieving widespread cultivation by the 1950s. Barley’s resilience to arid and saline conditions, as well as its suitability for cooler climates, made it a versatile crop for various ancient civilizations, including those in Mesopotamia and Egypt, where it was integral to daily diets and economic productivity (Riehl, 2019). 6.2 The cultural connection between barley and beer brewing The cultural significance of barley extends beyond its role as a food crop; it has been intrinsically linked to the production of beer, one of the oldest fermented beverages. Evidence of beer brewing dates back to at least 13 000 years ago, with the Natufian people in the Near East using barley to produce beer for ritual feasting (Liu et al., 2018). This early use of barley for brewing highlights its importance in social and ceremonial contexts. In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, beer was a staple in the diet and a significant aspect of daily life, with its production becoming a major sector of economic activity (Riehl, 2019). The development of beer brewing techniques evolved over millennia, from simple fermentation processes to more sophisticated methods, eventually leading to the diverse and complex beer production practices seen today. The genetic and morphological evolution of barley, including traits such as grain retention and increased seed yield, facilitated its use in brewing and contributed to the growth of beer culture (Pourkheirandish and Komatsuda, 2007; Haas et al., 2019). 6.3 The economic and social status of barley Barley has long been a vital economic resource, both as a food crop and as a raw material for various industries. Historically, it has been used for baking, cooking, and as animal feed, with a significant portion of modern barley production still dedicated to livestock. However, its role in the brewing industry has elevated its economic importance. The cultivation of barley for beer production has driven agricultural practices and breeding programs aimed at improving its processing characteristics, nutritional value, and stress tolerance. The economic impact of barley extends to its contributions to cardiovascular health and diabetes control, due to its beneficial micronutrients (Riehl, 2019). Additionally, the genetic diversity and adaptability of barley have made it a valuable crop for addressing global agricultural challenges, such as climate change and food security (Wang et al., 2015; Milanesi et al., 2021). The ongoing research and development in barley genetics continue to enhance its economic viability and social significance in both traditional and modern contexts. 7 Future Directions and Research 7.1 Development of new barley varieties The development of new barley varieties is crucial for enhancing the quality and sustainability of beer production. Modern breeding technologies, such as genome editing and marker-assisted selection, play a pivotal role in this process. For instance, the use of new breeding technologies (NBTs) can facilitate the re-domestication of crop wild relatives (CWR), which harbor beneficial traits that are often difficult to incorporate into conventional
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