Triticeae Genomics and Genetics, 2024, Vol.15, No.5, 266-276 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/tgg 268 Figure 1 Effects of Different Ascorbic Acid Concentrations on Sodium, Calcium, and Potassium Content in Roots and Stems of Barley (H. vulgare) Under Various Salinity Levels (Adapted from Hassan et al., 2021) Image caption: The figure illustrates the impact of different salinity levels (S1: 0 mM; S2: 50 mM; S3: 100 mM; S4: 150 mM) and three ascorbic acid treatments (AsA 0: 0 mM, AsA 30: 30 mM, AsA 60: 60 mM) on sodium (Na⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), and potassium (K⁺) accumulation in the roots and stems of barley. The bar charts represent the content of these ions in the roots and stems. Different letters indicate significant differences among the treatment groups (P<0.05); The experiment was analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess treatment differences, with an HSD test used to determine significant differences (Adapted from Hassan et al., 2021) 3 Domestication of Barley: From Wild Grain to Modern Food Crop 3.1 The domestication process of barley Barley (Hordeum vulgare) was one of the first crops to be domesticated by humans, with evidence suggesting that this process began around 10 000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent, a region that includes parts of modern-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, southeastern Turkey, and western Iran (Badr et al., 2000; Ozkan et al., 2002; Mascher et al., 2016). Genetic and archaeobotanical studies have pinpointed the Upper Jordan Valley as a significant area for the early domestication of barley, with ancient barley grains showing close genetic affinity to modern landraces from the Southern Levant and Egypt (Mascher et al., 2016). This region's wild barley populations, particularly those from Israel and Jordan, are genetically similar to the earliest domesticated forms, supporting the hypothesis that this area was a primary center of barley domestication (Badr et al., 2000). The domestication process involved a gradual transition from wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) to cultivated forms, marked by significant genetic changes. Archaeobotanical evidence indicates that the domestication of barley was a protracted process, taking thousands of plant generations to complete (Allaby et al., 2017). This extended period of pre-domestication cultivation suggests that early human groups experimented with barley cultivation long before the crop became fully domesticated (Allaby et al., 2010). The genetic evidence from ancient barley grains and modern landraces highlights the continuity and stability of barley cultivation in the region over millennia, with minimal lineage turnover (Mascher et al., 2016).
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