Triticeae Genomics and Genetics, 2024, Vol.15, No.4, 221-233 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/tgg 222 originated in the Fertile Crescent, a region known for the early domestication of many cereal crops. The wild ancestors of rye, such as Secale vavilovii and Secale strictum, are native to areas spanning the Middle East and Central Asia. These wild species are considered to be the progenitors of cultivated rye, having contributed significantly to its genetic diversity and resilience (Schreiber et al., 2018). The geographical distribution of these wild relatives suggests that rye's domestication likely occurred in a region where these species were naturally abundant, before spreading to other parts of Europe and Asia (Filatova et al., 2021). 2.2 Archaeological evidence and early use Archaeological evidence suggests that rye was initially a minor component in early agricultural systems, often found as a weed in wheat and barley fields (Douché and Willcox, 2023). The earliest definitive evidence of rye cultivation comes from the Bronze Age, around 1800 BCE, in what is now modern-day Turkey. The presence of rye grains in archaeological sites across Europe indicates that by the Iron Age, rye had begun to be cultivated more extensively, particularly in regions where harsh climates made the cultivation of other cereals difficult (Rabanus-Wallace et al., 2019). The spread of rye across Europe during this period is believed to have been driven by its superior tolerance to cold and poor soils, which allowed it to thrive in environments where other crops could not (Schlegel, 2022). 2.3 Genetic evidence of wild ancestry Genetic studies have provided substantial evidence of the wild ancestry of cultivated rye. Modern rye retains a high level of genetic diversity, much of which can be traced back to its wild relatives such as Secale strictumand Secale vavilovii (Schreiber et al., 2022). These genetic markers indicate that there has been considerable gene flow between wild and domesticated rye populations, a process that has likely contributed to the adaptability and resilience of the crop. Moreover, the analysis of ancient DNA from archaeological rye samples supports the hypothesis that cultivated rye is derived from multiple domestication events involving different wild populations (Larsson et al., 2019). The genetic evidence thus reinforces the view that rye's domestication was a complex and gradual process, involving the selection of traits from diverse wild populations that were best suited to the agricultural environments of early farmers. This rich genetic heritage continues to play a vital role in rye's ongoing adaptation to modern agricultural challenges. 3 Domestication of Rye 3.1 Timeline and process of domestication The domestication of rye (Secale cereale) is a complex process that has been shaped by both natural selection and human intervention over millennia. Rye's domestication is believed to have occurred relatively late compared to other major cereals. Initially, rye was a weed in wheat and barley fields in the Fertile Crescent during the Neolithic period, around 10 000 years ago. It wasn’t until the Bronze Age, approximately 4 000 years ago, that rye began to be cultivated as a crop in its own right (Schreiber et al., 2018). The spread of rye across Europe is well-documented, with archaeological evidence showing its presence in Central and Eastern Europe by the Iron Age. The cultivation of rye became more widespread as farmers began to recognize its resilience to poor soil conditions and cold climates, making it an ideal crop for the harsher environments of Northern Europe (Rabanus-Wallace et al., 2019). 3.2 Selection of key traits during domestication During the domestication of rye, early farmers selectively bred for several key traits that enhanced the crop’s utility and survivability (Seabra et al., 2023). One of the primary traits selected was cold tolerance, which allowed rye to be grown in regions unsuitable for other cereals such as wheat and barley (Sidhu et al., 2019). Other important traits included increased seed size, reduced shattering (the tendency of seeds to fall from the plant prematurely), and the development of a more robust root system that improved the plant’s ability to thrive in poor soils (Adamo et al., 2021). Additionally, the selection for traits such as resistance to diseases and pests further enhanced rye’s agricultural viability (Hawliczek et al., 2023).
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