Maize Genomics and Genetics 2025, Vol.16, No.4, 167-181 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/mgg 170 Fine-textured clay soils, while high in nutrient content, can become compacted, reducing root growth and impeding oxygen movement. Practices such as tillage or the addition of organic matter can improve aeration and structure in clay soils, making them more conducive to maize root development. Long-term studies in chernozem soils indicate that periodic tillage and residue management enhance root expansion and nutrient absorption, improving maize productivity on clay-dense soils (Wang et al., 2021). Sandy soils can benefit from biochar additions, which improve water retention and reduce nutrient leaching. Biochar has shown promising results in enhancing water-holding capacity and nutrient retention, particularly phosphorus, making sandy soils more suitable for maize cultivation. Studies have demonstrated that biochar amendments can significantly increase maize growth and yield by improving soil texture and water availability, even in low-input environments (Rafique et al., 2019). 4 Biotic Interactions Affecting Maize Growth 4.1 Pests and pathogens impacting maize Maize is susceptible to various pests, including root-feeding larvae and foliar herbivores, which can cause significant crop losses. For instance, Phyllophaga vetula larvae are notorious for damaging maize roots, impacting nutrient uptake and plant growth. Studies suggest that integrating entomopathogenic fungi like Beauveria bassiana with native mycorrhizal fungi can enhance maize’s resilience by promoting plant growth despite root herbivory, thus helping counterbalance the effects of pests (Zitlalpopoca-Hernandez et al., 2017). Pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses also pose threats to maize, affecting both ear and foliar health. For example, pathogens like Fusarium and Aspergillus can reduce yield and produce mycotoxins that contaminate crops. New research focuses on using atoxigenic strains of fungi to biologically control aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus, which has shown success in limiting contamination in maize fields (Spadola et al., 2022). Biological control agents, including microbial antagonists, have been developed as eco-friendly alternatives to chemical fungicides. Beneficial microbes can inhibit pathogens by competing for resources, producing antifungal compounds, or directly attacking pathogens through enzymatic activity. For example, Trichoderma species are commonly used as biocontrol agents against fungal diseases in maize (Kim et al., 2022). 4.2 Beneficial microorganisms supporting maize Beneficial microorganisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), contribute to maize growth by enhancing nutrient uptake, promoting stress tolerance, and protecting against pathogens. Mycorrhizal fungi, particularly arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), improve phosphorus absorption in maize, supporting healthier and more robust growth. Studies have shown that AMF inoculation increases maize shoot biomass and nutrient levels even in saline soils, helping maize tolerate environmental stresses (Moreira et al., 2019). PGPB, such as Azospirillum brasilense and Pseudomonas fluorescens, enhance maize productivity by fixing nitrogen, producing growth hormones, and synthesizing enzymes that support plant health. Field studies indicate that inoculating maize with these bacteria can increase grain yield and improve rhizosphere microbial diversity, showing their potential in sustainable agriculture (Salvo et al., 2018). Synergistic effects occur when AMF and PGPB are used together. Co-inoculation of maize with these microorganisms has been shown to enhance root and shoot growth more effectively than either alone, as each provides unique benefits that complement the other. The combination enhances nutrient uptake, supports drought tolerance, and reduces pathogen susceptibility, creating a more resilient growth environment for maize (Prasanna et al., 2016). 4.3 Weed competition and its effects on maize growth Weeds compete with maize for resources such as light, water, and nutrients, often leading to reduced crop yield. High weed density increases cultivation costs, lowers soil nutrient availability, and impacts maize quality. For instance, weed competition in maize fields has been found to decrease maize yield by up to 50% if left unmanaged, illustrating the necessity of effective weed control strategies (Varshitha et al., 2019).
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MjQ4ODYzNA==