Maize Genomics and Genetics 2024, Vol.15, No.3, 111-122 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/mgg 117 (Cui et al., 2019). The development of affordable genotyping platforms, such as genotyping by target sequencing (GBTS), has further democratized access to advanced breeding technologies, benefiting small- and medium-sized breeding programs (Guo et al., 2019). Figure 3 Patterns in Genomic Relationship and Phenotypes in Maize (Adopted from Guo et al., 2019) Image caption: (A) PCA plot for 24 parental inbreds. TM, temperate and mixed; TS, tropical and subtropical. (B) PCA plot for 276 hybrids. Hybrids are color coded into TM × TM, TS × TS, and TM × TS. (C) Genomic relationship between inbreds in hierarchical cluster order. (D) Phenotypic values of hybrids for flowering time (days). (E) Ear height (cm). (F) Grain yield (Mg ha−1). For each hybrid in (D–F), inbred parents were ordered by hierarchical clustering. Inter-group hybrids (from factorial) were boxed in (D–F), and the corresponding genomic relationship section in (C). (Adopted from Guo et al., 2019) 5.2 Economic benefits The economic benefits of genomics-assisted breeding in maize are substantial. By accelerating the breeding cycle and improving the accuracy of selection, GAB reduces the time and cost associated with developing new maize varieties. For example, the use of genomic selection models has been shown to increase genetic gains with fewer breeding cycles, translating to cost savings and higher productivity (Rice and Lipka, 2021). Moreover, the reduction in yield losses due to disease-resistant varieties, such as those resistant to ear rots, directly contributes to increased profitability for farmers (Gaikpa and Miedaner, 2019). The cost-benefit analysis of GBTS also indicates that genotypic selection is more cost-effective than traditional phenotypic selection, making advanced breeding technologies accessible to a broader range of breeding programs (Guo et al., 2019). 5.3 Environmental Sustainability Genomics-assisted breeding contributes to environmental sustainability by enabling the development of maize varieties that are more resilient to biotic and abiotic stresses. For instance, breeding for drought tolerance using genomic tools helps ensure stable maize production in regions prone to water scarcity, thereby supporting sustainable agriculture (Nepolean et al., 2018). Additionally, the development of multi-disease resistant varieties reduces the need for chemical inputs, such as fungicides, thereby minimizing the environmental impact of maize cultivation (Miedaner et al., 2020). The integration of genomic data in breeding programs also facilitates the selection of climate-smart crop cultivars, which are better adapted to changing environmental conditions (Varshney et al. 2022).
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