Maize Genomics and Genetics 2024, Vol.15, No.2, 93-101 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/mgg 95 soil can enhance grain quality by improving protein and fiber content. A study in Greece found that environments with high concentrations of nutrients like Mg and Ca, along with favorable soil texture, resulted in higher protein and fiber contents in maize grains (Katsenios et al., 2021). Nitrogen availability, in particular, has a profound impact on grain quality. Research in Brazil showed that increasing N application rates led to higher grain yields and improved kernel hardness, while reducing breakage susceptibility (Chen et al., 2014; Duarte et al., 2005). However, the genotype of the maize also played a significant role, with some genotypes responding better to N application than others. This suggests that soil fertility management, particularly N management, is crucial for optimizing grain quality. 3.3 Agricultural practices Agricultural practices, including planting density, herbicide application, and overall crop management, significantly influence maize grain quality. Planting density, for example, affects the availability of resources like light, water, and nutrients to individual plants, thereby impacting grain quality. A study comparing different planting densities in various ecological environments found that higher planting densities generally led to a decrease in grain protein content, although the trends for other nutrients like fat and starch were more complex (Tian et al., 2021). Herbicide application is another critical factor. Research in contrasting climatic conditions showed that different herbicide treatments had significant effects on the hundred-grain weight and overall yield of maize genotypes. The study found that the genotype and the specific herbicide treatment both played significant roles in determining grain quality, with some genotypes showing more resilience to herbicide stress than others (Bozovic et al., 2022). Moreover, the timing of planting and other management decisions, such as stand density and soil P levels, were found to be crucial in determining grain yield and quality in late-sown maize in Argentina. The study highlighted the importance of optimizing these management variables to achieve better grain quality (Gambin et al., 2016). 3.4 Pest and disease management Effective pest and disease management is essential for maintaining high grain quality in maize. Pests and diseases can cause significant damage to maize crops, leading to reduced grain quality and yield. For instance, the presence of pests like the European corn borer and diseases such as maize streak virus can lead to poor grain filling and lower nutritional quality. Research in West and Central Africa has shown that breeding for resistance to pests and diseases, such as Striga parasitism, can lead to substantial improvements in grain yield and quality. The study found that maize cultivars developed for resistance to Striga and other stress factors showed higher yield stability and better grain quality under both optimal and stress conditions (Badu‐Apraku et al., 2015). In addition to genetic resistance, integrated pest management (IPM) practices, including the use of biological control agents and cultural practices, can help mitigate the impact of pests and diseases on maize grain quality. For example, maintaining proper field hygiene, crop rotation, and timely application of appropriate pesticides can reduce pest and disease pressure, thereby enhancing grain quality. The grain quality of maize is influenced by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors. Climate and weather conditions, soil characteristics, agricultural practices, and pest and disease management all play crucial roles in determining the final quality of maize grains. Understanding and optimizing these factors can help improve maize grain quality, thereby enhancing its value for both human consumption and industrial use. 4 Interaction Between Genetic and Environmental Factors 4.1 Genotype-environment interaction Genotype-environment interaction (GEI) plays a crucial role in determining the grain quality and yield stability of maize. The interaction between genetic makeup and environmental conditions can significantly influence the performance of maize hybrids. For instance, a study conducted in Eastern and Southern Africa evaluated 108 quality protein maize (QPM) hybrids across 13 environments under varying conditions such as drought, low nitrogen, and optimal environments. The results indicated that both the environment and the genotype significantly affected grain yield and stability, with certain hybrids like H40 showing outstanding performance across different management conditions (Stuber et al., 1987; Mebratu et al., 2019).
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