Maize Genomics and Genetics 2024, Vol.15, No.2, 60-69 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/mgg 65 While herbicide-tolerant maize provides substantial agronomic benefits, including improved weed management, increased crop yields, and reduced tillage, it also raises important environmental concerns. These include potential impacts on biodiversity and the development of herbicide-resistant weeds, which require careful management and further research to ensure sustainable agricultural practices. 5 Socioeconomic and Regulatory Aspects 5.1 Economic impact on farmers and the agricultural industry The adoption of genetically engineered (GE) herbicide-tolerant (HT) maize has shown varied economic impacts on farmers. Studies indicate that GE crops can lead to both increased and decreased herbicide use, depending on the crop and the specific genetic modification. For instance, adopters of GE glyphosate-tolerant (GT) maize used 1.2% less herbicide than non-adopters, which can translate into cost savings for farmers (Perry et al., 2016). However, the emergence of glyphosate-resistant weeds has led to increased herbicide use over time, potentially offsetting initial cost benefits (Bonny, 2016). Additionally, the development of dual herbicide-tolerant maize, such as the SCB-29 event, which is tolerant to both glyphosate and glufosinate, offers a promising solution to manage herbicide resistance and maintain economic benefits for farmers (Yu et al., 2023). The market dynamics surrounding GE HT crops are influenced by several factors, including regulatory approvals, market acceptance, and the prevalence of herbicide-resistant weeds. The rapid adoption of GMHT crops, particularly in the USA, highlights their perceived benefits in terms of weed management and crop yield (Bonny, 2016). However, the spread of glyphosate-resistant weeds has necessitated changes in herbicide application strategies, impacting adoption rates and market dynamics (Bonny, 2016). The Farm Scale Evaluations in the UK demonstrated that GMHT crops generally required fewer herbicide applications compared to conventional crops, which could influence adoption rates positively (Yu et al., 2023). 5.2 Regulatory frameworks and biosafety considerations International regulations and guidelines play a crucial role in the adoption and management of GE HT crops. Regulatory frameworks vary by country, with some regions adopting more stringent biosafety measures than others. For example, the European Union has implemented rigorous risk assessment protocols for GM crops, which can delay or restrict their approval and commercialization (Yu et al., 2023). In contrast, countries like the USA have more streamlined regulatory processes, facilitating quicker adoption of GE crops (Bonny, 2016). The development of dual herbicide-tolerant maize in China underscores the importance of regulatory frameworks in addressing herbicide resistance and ensuring biosafety (Zilberman et al., 2010). Risk assessment and management are critical components of the regulatory process for GE HT crops. These processes involve evaluating the potential environmental and health impacts of GE crops, including the development of herbicide-resistant weeds and the effects on non-target organisms. Studies have shown that the use of GE HT crops can lead to changes in herbicide use patterns, which must be carefully monitored and managed to mitigate risks (Perry et al., 2016; Bonny, 2016). The integration of herbicide resistance genes, such as the NPK1 gene for drought and salt tolerance, further complicates risk assessment, necessitating comprehensive evaluation of both agronomic and environmental impacts (Brookes, 2019). The socioeconomic and regulatory aspects of GE HT maize are multifaceted, involving cost-benefit analyses for farmers, market dynamics, and stringent regulatory frameworks. Effective risk assessment and management are essential to ensure the sustainable adoption and use of these crops, balancing economic benefits with environmental and biosafety considerations. 6 Future Perspectives and Research Directions 6.1 Advancements in genetic engineering technologies Recent advancements in genetic engineering technologies have significantly enhanced the development of herbicide-tolerant maize varieties. Techniques such as CRISPR/Cas9 and other genome editing tools have enabled precise modifications in the maize genome, leading to the creation of crops with improved herbicide tolerance and other desirable traits (Bao et al., 2022). The integration of morphogenic regulators has also increased
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