Legume Genomics and Genetics 2025, Vol.16, No.6, 270-278 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/lgg 273 4.2 Increased land equivalent ratio (LER) and biomass productivity Continuous intercropping often leads to a higher land equivalent ratio, which means that the same piece of land can produce more. Data show that intercropping can increase total energy and income by about 38%, while reducing the area of land required by 23%, with an average LER of about 1.30 (Martin-Guay et al., 2018). Long-term experiments further show that intercropping can increase grain yields by an average of 22%, with less yield fluctuations. As soil fertility increases, this advantage will continue to increase (Wang et al., 2021). Higher aboveground biomass and better nutrient utilization also prove its support for sustainable intensive production (Zhang et al., 2023). 4.3 Reduced incidence of pests and diseases through diversified planting Intercropping is naturally labeled as "diversified", and this diversity itself is a natural pest management tool. With more plant species, the habitat in the field is richer, beneficial insects are more willing to come, the life rhythm of pests is disrupted, and less pesticides are sprayed (Huss et al., 2022). A meta-analysis pointed out that intercropping can reduce the use of pesticides for certain crops by up to 40% to 72%, while maintaining or even increasing yields and returns (Martin et al., 2024). With less chemical input, the environment is safer, and the resilience of the planting system becomes stronger. 5 Economic Implications of Legume-Based Intercropping 5.1 Yield stability and risk minimization in smallholder systems The most obvious benefit of planting legumes together with other crops on a small plot of land is more stable yields and more risk-resistant income. With more crops, no matter how the market price and weather change, all the harvests will not be dragged down at once. A diversified layout can make the profit curve flatter, which is more reassuring than planting a single crop. Many field experiments have found that as long as the proportion of legumes is adjusted to the appropriate range, the harvest is not afraid of extreme climate such as drought. This is particularly important for small farmers who rely on the land for their livelihood (Liu et al., 2024). In addition, intercropping can also weaken the impact of price fluctuations and yield fluctuations, making the overall economic resilience even more resilient (Ha et al., 2024). 5.2 Economic returns from reduced input costs and market diversification Leguminosae can "make their own nitrogen fertilizer", so after hybrid planting, less fertilizer is needed, saving money. The number of fertilization, spraying, and irrigation can also be reduced, and net profit and return on investment will go up (Tang et al., 2020; Mudare et al., 2022). For pairings such as corn with soybeans and wheat with peas, field data show that net income and land equivalent ratios are higher. Studies have calculated that yields can be increased by 37-43 percentage points, and carbon emissions and overall inputs can be reduced simultaneously (Sun et al., 2023). In addition, the fields can harvest a variety of agricultural products in the same season, and farmers can choose different markets to sell, with more sources of income and more freedom in selling time (Teame et al., 2023). 5.3 Labor dynamics and cost-benefit trade-offs in intercropping management Of course, intercropping is not zero cost. With more crops, planting plans are more complicated, and row spacing and sowing order must be carefully calculated in advance. On small farms that rely mainly on manpower, arranging sowing, weeding, and topdressing will take more time than monocropping (Ahmad et al., 2019). However, in large fields with a high degree of mechanization, many links can be completed mechanically at one time. The troubles of the past are being slowly solved, and large-scale legume intercropping is becoming more and more realistic (Roberts et al., 2021). Overall, as long as you choose the right varieties, plan the rows, and adjust the sales rhythm according to the local market, the money saved on fertilizers and the extra income from selling a variety of crops can usually offset or even exceed the extra management fees (Yasin et al., 2024). 6 Case Study 6.1 Case of maize-bean intercropping in East African highlands: productivity and soil health gains In the East African highlands, farmers often intercrop maize and beans. This practice can improve land use
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MjQ4ODYzNA==