Legume Genomics and Genetics 2025, Vol.16, No.5, 245-252 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/lgg 247 genotypes can sometimes be significant (Myrtsi et al., 2024). This is also why the analysis of variety differences is always inevitable in the selection and breeding work. At present, some representative achievements have been made, such as the emergence of low-ANF varieties like Kunitz-free soybeans and zero-tannin peas, with the aim of enhancing nutritional quality and safety (Jha et al., 2022). In addition, environmental conditions and management measures cannot be ignored either, as they also have a considerable impact on the accumulation of nutrients in seeds. 4 Interactions Between Anti-Nutritional Factors and Nutrients 4.1 Binding mechanisms between anti-nutrients and proteins, minerals, and vitamins Anti-nutritional factors (ANF) are not always "poisons", but they do interfere with the normal utilization of nutrients by the human body. Common ANF substances like phytic acid, tannin and oxalic acid tend to get entangled with minerals (such as calcium, iron, zinc and copper) and proteins in the intestines, forming complexes that are not easily absorbed. The result is that the nutrients ingested are not truly absorbed. Phytic acid sometimes even affects the function of vitamin D, and components like avidin can "bind" biotin, directly influencing the availability of vitamins (Arsov et al., 2024; Gao and Li, 2025). These reactions themselves are not uncommon, but the severity of the problem can vary depending on the diet structure. 4.2 Inhibitory effects on the bioavailability of micronutrients Not all the nutrients in beans can be easily absorbed, especially trace elements like iron and zinc, which are more likely to be "locked" in foods with high phytic acid and polyphenol content. This kind of situation is particularly common in regions that rely mainly on plants such as beans as their food sources, and sometimes it can develop into micronutrient deficiencies (Raes et al., 2014). In addition, components such as protease inhibitors and lectins not only affect the decomposition and absorption of proteins but also indirectly drag down the absorption efficiency of other nutrients, such as amino acids (Figure 1) (Nkhata et al., 2018; Kong et al., 2022). Although the body has certain regulatory mechanisms, long-term intake of a diet high in ANF is indeed a hidden danger. 4.3 Potential positive roles: antioxidant and anti-cancer properties However, anti-nutritional factors (ANF) cannot be completely dismissed. Studies have found that components such as phytic acid, tannin, and saponin may actually be beneficial at low concentrations. Their antioxidant activity, metal chelating effect and even certain anti-cancer potential have been demonstrated in some animal experiments and cell-level studies (Gemede and Ratta, 2014; Samtiya et al., 2020; Salim et al., 2023). These compounds have also been observed to potentially regulate blood sugar, cholesterol and insulin responses. Therefore, ANF is sometimes like a double-edged sword. While it interferes with nutrient absorption, it also offers potential protective effects. 5 Traditional and Modern Technologies to Eliminate or Reduce Anti-Nutritional Factors 5.1 Traditional processing methods: soaking, germination, cooking, and fermentation Many families have long adopted some actually very effective methods to lower ANF (anti-nutritional factor) when dealing with beans, such as soaking, germination, cooking and fermentation. These may seem like "old ways", but they do work. Soaking and germination are not only for shortening the cooking time, but also can activate the enzymes inside the beans, especially phytase, which helps break down phytic acid and other harmful factors, while also filtering out some water-soluble components (Amoah et al., 2023). High-temperature cooking, especially when there is a lot of water, is relatively direct in dealing with heat-unstable factors such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins (Gbedo et al., 2024). Fermentation is more complex, and the effects of different strains vary. However, commonly used strains such as lactic acid bacteria and Bacillus show stable performance in decomposing saponins, tannins, phytic acid and oligosaccharides, sometimes with a reduction of 60% to 90%, which depends on the specific process and the type of legume (De Pasquale et al., 2019; Sakandar et al., 2021). To further enhance the processing effect, it is also common to combine several methods, such as germination followed by fermentation (Nkhata et al., 2018).
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