Legume Genomics and Genetics 2024, Vol.15, No.5, 210-220 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/lgg 213 evidenced by the higher success rates of hand-crossed fruits compared to hand-selfed ones in V. caracalla (Figure 2) (Etcheverry et al., 2008). The long-term conservatism of floral traits in the Dipterygeae clade has also ensured the maintenance of these specialized interactions over millions of years (Carvalho et al., 2023a). Figure 2 Floral visitors of V. caracalla(Adopted from Etcheverry et al., 2008) Image caption: (A) Bombus morio worker, the most frequent pollinator of V. caracalla (body length ¼ 2 cm). Note the stylar brush contacting the pronotum (arrow). (B) Xylocopa eximia (body length ¼ 2.6 cm). (C) Centris bicolor (body length ¼ 1.5 cm); note the cuts on the left wing (arrow), produced by the insect’s hind legs during foraging movements. (D) Species of Meliponini acting as a pollen thief (body length approx. 1 cm) (Adopted from Etcheverry et al., 2008) 3.3 Genetic diversity and adaptation Genetic diversity plays a pivotal role in the ecological success of winged papilionate flowers. The conservatism of floral traits within the Dipterygeae clade, despite the lability in fruit morphology, suggests that maintaining genetic diversity in floral architecture has been key to their evolutionary persistence. This diversity allows for the continuous adaptation to changing environmental conditions and the maintenance of effective pollinator interactions (Carvalho et al., 2023a). Molecular adaptations have enabled winged papilionate flowers to cope with various environmental stressors. The genetic mechanisms underlying the structural complexity of their flowers, such as the differentiation of the calyx and the formation of an intrafloral functional module, have likely evolved to optimize pollination efficiency and reproductive success under different ecological contexts. These adaptations ensure that even in environments with reduced pollinator diversity, such as high elevations, these plants can still achieve reproductive assurance through mechanisms like self-fertilization (Etcheverry et al., 2008; Córdoba and Cocucci, 2011). 4 Case Study: Phaseolus Species (Common Beans) 4.1 Importance of Phaseolus in agriculture and biodiversity The genus Phaseolus comprises about 70 species, including several that are widely cultivated for food and fodder. This genus is native to the Americas, with a distribution range spanning from the southwestern United States to Argentina. The most economically important species within this genus include Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean), Phaseolus lunatus (lima bean), Phaseolus coccineus (runner bean), and Phaseolus acutifolius (tepary bean). These species are notable for their morphological diversity, which includes variations in flower structure, seed shape, and growth habits. The unique winged morphology of the flowers, a characteristic trait of the genus, plays a critical role in pollination biology and has evolved as an adaptive response to attract specific pollinators, such as bees (Chacón-Sánchez et al., 2021; Uebersax et al., 2022). Phaseolus species are among the most important leguminous crops globally, providing a vital source of protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), in particular, is a staple food in many regions, especially in Latin America and Africa, where it serves as a primary source of plant-based protein. The
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