Field Crop 2025, Vol.8 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc © 2025 CropSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved.
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc © 2025 CropSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Publisher CropSci Publisher Editedby Editorial Team of Field Crop Email: edit@fc.cropscipublisher.com Website: http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc Address: 11388 Stevenston Hwy, PO Box 96016, Richmond, V7A 5J5, British Columbia Canada FieldCrop is an International Journal, is an open access, peer reviewed journal published online by CropSci Publisher. This journal publishes research articles of field crops, as well as innovative research conducted in the field, farm or on the land related to edible agricultural food crops. The research must be based on cropping system, crop physiology, crop genetics and breeding. Topics include (but are not limited to) different aspects like crop management, agronomy, plant pathology, entomology, soil science, vegetable and horticultural science related phenomena. All the articles published in Field Crop are Open Access, and are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. CropSci Publisher uses CrossCheck service to identify academic plagiarism through the world’s leading plagiarism prevention tool, iParadigms, and to protect the original authors’ copyrights. CropSci Publisher is an international Open Access publisher specializing in crop science, and crops-related research registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group (SPG), founded in British Columbia of Canada.
Field Crop (online), 2025, Vol.8, No.6 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc © 2025 CropSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Latest Content Analysis of the Impact of Partially Replacing Chemical Fertilizer with Organic Fertilizer on Soybean Yield Yuping Huang, Weiliang Shen, Jingyi Zhang Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 258-264 High-Density Planting Combined With Lodging-Resistance Traits Improves Field Performance in Maize Jinhua Cheng, Wei Wang Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 265-273 Reduced Pesticide Use in Cotton Fields through Biological Control and Companion Planting Strategies ZhenLi Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 274-283 Optimizing Planting Density and Sowing Date for Mechanized Direct-seeded Rice in Subtropical Regions Xinguang Cai, Yaodong Liu Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 284-292 Integrating Remote Sensing and Crop Modeling for Real-Time Yield Prediction in Wheat Delong Wang, Pingping Yang, Jiong Fu Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 293-300
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 258-264 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 258 Meta Analysis Open Access Analysis of the Impact of Partially Replacing Chemical Fertilizer with Organic Fertilizer on Soybean Yield Yuping Huang, Weiliang Shen, Jingyi Zhang Tropical Legume Research Center, Hainan Institute of Tropical Agricultural Resources, Sanya, 572025, Hainan, China Corresponding email: jingyi.zhang@hitar.org Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.6 doi: 10.5376/fc.2025.08.0026 Received: 03 Sep., 2025 Accepted: 12 Oct., 2025 Published: 02 Nov., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Huang et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Huang Y.P., Shen W.L., and Zhang J.Y., 2025, Analysis of the impact of partially replacing chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer on soybean yield, Field Crop, 8(6): 258-264 (doi: 10.5376/fc.2025.08.0026) Abstract With the deepening of the concept of sustainable agricultural development, the reduction of chemical fertilizers and organic substitution have become important ways to improve crop yield and quality and protect the soil ecological environment. This study focuses on the fertilization mode of replacing part of the chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer, systematically explores its effects on soybean yield, growth indicators and quality factors, and evaluates its feasibility and advantages. The results show that a moderate proportion of organic fertilizer substitution not only helps to improve the root vitality and biological yield of soybeans, but also improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil to a certain extent, and promotes nutrient absorption and utilization efficiency. Compared with the full chemical fertilizer treatment, the 50% substitution ratio performs better in multiple indicators, reflecting good yield stability and ecological benefits. This study systematically analyzes the yield performance and soil improvement effects under different substitution ratios, providing a theoretical basis and practical path for green and efficient planting models, so as to promote the ecological and sustainable development of soybean production. Keywords Organic fertilizer; Chemical fertilizer substitution; Soybean yield; Nutrient utilization; Sustainable agriculture 1 Introduction There are many problems with fertilization in soybean cultivation. Farmers generally rely on chemical fertilizers, which makes people worry that the nutrients in the soil will be used up, the soil quality will deteriorate, and there may be environmental problems such as nutrient loss and increased greenhouse gases (Wu et al., 2024). If too much chemical fertilizer is used, the soil will become less and less fertile over time, making it difficult to continue planting (Kuntyastuti et al., 2020; Sandrakirana and Arifin, 2021). Recently, many studies have begun to focus on whether some organic fertilizers (such as manure or compost) can be used to replace part of the chemical fertilizers. In actual planting, some people have tried to use organic fertilizers and chemical fertilizers together and found that this can improve soil quality, increase good bacteria in the soil, and increase the activity of some useful enzymes. These changes help make nutrient circulation smoother and plants healthier (Peng et al., 2023). Although some experimental results show that soybean yield and soil fertility have indeed increased, some studies have shown that this improvement is not obvious in every case. Therefore, the fertilization method must be determined according to the local conditions (Lin et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2024). However, replacing chemical fertilizers with some organic fertilizers can indeed reduce the impact on the environment and may also help farmers save a lot of costs. This study will analyze the effect of partial replacement of chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers on soybean yield, focusing on soil quality, microbial activity and crop productivity, review the challenges and opportunities of fertilizer management in soybean cultivation, summarize the latest research results on the combined effects of organic fertilizers and chemical fertilizers, evaluate the potential mechanism of organic fertilizers replacing chemical fertilizers on soybean yield and soil improvement, and finally propose an optimized fertilization strategy to achieve sustainable soybean production.
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 258-264 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 259 2 Nutrient Demands of Soybean Growth 2.1 Stage-specific nutrient requirements (N, P, K) During the entire growth process, soybeans require a large amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and the demand for these elements is different at different growth stages. Generally speaking, modern soybean varieties absorb about 275 kg of nitrogen, 21 kg of phosphorus and 172 kg of potassium per hectare to achieve a high yield. Among them, the utilization rate of nitrogen and phosphorus is relatively high, indicating that they are particularly important for grain formation (Bender et al., 2015). Potassium and iron are mainly absorbed in the later stage, while nitrogen and phosphorus are slowly absorbed from the early stage and are used until the filling stage. In order for soybeans to grow well and have high yields, these nutrients need to be supplied in place at the critical stage. 2.2 Complementarity between rhizobial nitrogen fixation and applied nitrogen Although soybeans can cooperate with rhizobia to obtain some nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation, this is usually not enough. In order to have high yields and high protein content, some additional nitrogen fertilizers must be applied. If nitrogen fertilizer is used together with inoculants such as bradyrhizobium, soybeans can grow faster, photosynthesize more efficiently, and produce higher yields. Combining organic fertilizers, chemical fertilizers, and inoculants is now a recommended nutrient management method, which allows nutrients to be better absorbed by plants and helps crop health and yield. 2.3 Long-term chemical fertilizer use and soil health impacts If only chemical fertilizers are used for a long time, the nutrients in the soil will become unbalanced, the microbial activity will deteriorate, and it will easily cause nutrient loss and environmental pollution, which will eventually affect the overall health of the soil (Singh et al., 2024). Therefore, many people now advocate the use of organic fertilizers, such as compost or manure, to replace part of the chemical fertilizers. These organic fertilizers can improve soil structure, allow more microorganisms in the soil, and promote nutrient circulation. This practice not only maintains soybean yields, but also benefits the long-term fertility and ecological environment of the soil. 3 Fertilization Strategies with Partial Organic Substitution 3.1 Setting replacement ratios The common practice now is to replace part of chemical fertilizer with 25%, 50% or 75% organic fertilizer. Studies have found that when the replacement ratio is around 45% to 50%, the soybean yield and soil quality are better, and it can also reduce the emission of some harmful gases such as nitrous oxide (Xu et al., 2024). If the replacement ratio is lower, such as 15% to 30%, it is also good for the environment, but the long-term improvement effect on the soil may not be obvious. If the ratio is too high, such as more than 75%, it may not only fail to increase the yield, but it may also easily cause problems such as uneven nutrients and increased costs (Hou et al., 2022). 3.2 Types of organic fertilizers and nutrient profiles There are many types of organic fertilizers that can replace chemical fertilizers, such as pig manure, cow manure, compost, straw, and urban sludge compost. They contain different nutrients and have different effects on the soil (Tang et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2024a). Manure, for example, has a more appropriate carbon-nitrogen ratio and can provide a variety of nutrients; while compost and straw are more conducive to increasing organic carbon and microbial species in the soil. The choice of organic fertilizer will affect the enzyme activity and microbial composition in the soil, which will affect the growth of crops and the sustainable planting capacity of the field. 3.3 Optimization of timing and methods of application When and how to use organic fertilizer is also critical. It is best to apply it when soybeans are just planted or are still in the growth period, so that they are more easily absorbed (Zhai et al., 2022). In addition, organic fertilizer should be turned into the soil instead of being spread on the surface, which can reduce nutrient loss and make it more usable by crops. Usually, we should pay more attention to the nutrient status of the soil and adjust the amount of fertilizer according to the situation. Only by persisting in the long term and managing according to local conditions can soybeans grow well without damaging the land.
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 258-264 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 260 4 Effects on Soybean Growth Parameters 4.1 Emergence rate, seedling establishment, and plant vigor Soybeans need sufficient nutrients and good soil conditions from germination to seedling growth. With sufficient nutrients, especially after the use of organic fertilizers, seedlings grow faster and have stronger vitality. Studies have found that if the light conditions are good, the weight of the aboveground part and the roots will increase, the stems will be thicker, and the leaves will become larger (Figure 1) (Huynh et al., 2025). Some organic fertilizers can also improve soil structure, especially when the soil acidity is high, which helps to increase the germination rate and the health of seedlings (Sattar et al., 2023). Figure 1 Soybean seedlings: (a) A0_11, high light intensity, uniform PPFD distribution; (b) B0_11, nonuniform PPFD distribution. Discoloration of leaves indicates nutrient deficiency symptoms (Adopted from Huynh et al., 2025) 4.2 Plant height, number of branches, and LAI changes Plant height, number of branches and leaf area index are several important indicators to measure whether soybeans grow well. If nutrients are managed properly, such as using organic fertilizers, the plants will grow taller, the leaves will become larger, and some can even increase branches. Studies have found that after taking these measures, plant height can be increased by 21%, leaf area by 18.7%, and leaf dry weight can even increase by 66.4% (Wang et al., 2025). However, if high temperature or drought occurs, the leaves may become smaller, with fewer branches, and the whole plant will be shorter, all of which will lead to a decrease in yield (Hu and Wiatrak, 2012; Jumrani and Bhatia, 2018). At this time, if organic fertilizers with good water retention are added, these adverse effects can be alleviated and the plants can continue to grow normally. 4.3 Root activity and nodulation dynamics The health of the roots is directly related to the ability of soybeans to absorb water and nutrients, and also affects biological nitrogen fixation. Using organic fertilizers and some beneficial bacteria, such as growth-promoting bacteria or mycorrhizal fungi, can make the roots grow more and longer, with a larger surface area, and the number of nodules will also increase, up to 68% more (Ngosong et al., 2022). These changes are related to increased acid phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere, an enzyme that helps plants absorb nutrients and thus increase yields. Good nodule growth can also increase the content of protein, sugar, and trace elements in the grains, indicating that the relationship between roots and microorganisms is important for high soybean yields. 5 Impacts on Yield and Seed Quality 5.1 Pod number per plant, 100-seed weight, and total yield The yield of soybean mainly depends on three aspects: the number of pods per plant, the size of seeds (that is, the 100-grain weight), and the total harvest. Scientific nutrient management, such as replacing chemical fertilizers with part of organic fertilizers, is helpful in these aspects. Experiments have found that when nutrients are more
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 258-264 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 261 fully supplied, there will be more pods, larger seeds, and naturally higher yields (Si et al., 2022). Like other oil crops, soybeans respond very well to fertilization. The more pods, the higher the yield. In addition, management measures such as crop rotation and timely topdressing can also help increase yields (Assefa et al., 2019). 5.2 Improvements in protein and oil content The quality of soybean seeds mainly depends on protein and oil content. Studies have shown that if part of organic fertilizer is used, combined with appropriate nitrogen fertilizer management, the protein content of seeds can be increased. Sometimes, whether it is organic nitrogen or chemical nitrogen, as long as there is more nitrogen fertilizer, the protein content will increase, but this may reduce the oil content, because the two sometimes affect each other (Digrado et al., 2024). However, in general, if the fertilizer is properly matched, not only can the protein content be increased, but the oil content will not decrease too much, so that the nutritional value and selling price of the seeds can be maintained. 5.3 Effects on seed safety (nitrate, heavy metals) Soybean safety is also very important, especially harmful substances such as nitrates and heavy metals. Although many studies mainly look at yield and quality, there are also data showing that if too much chemical fertilizer is used, nitrates and heavy metals may accumulate in the soil or seeds (Maity et al., 2023). Relatively speaking, good use of organic fertilizers can reduce such problems. As long as the source of organic fertilizers is safe, coupled with regular inspections of soil and seed quality, soybeans can be guaranteed to be both safe and high-yielding. 6 Regional Trials and Practical Applications 6.1 Yield increase under partial substitution in Northeast China In Northeast China, a study found that soybean yields have been rising in recent years, increasing by about 1.68% each year. This increase is mainly due to better management, such as the use of conservation tillage, more reasonable planting methods, and often the use of organic + chemical fertilizers. Studies in the Northeast Agricultural Region also pointed out that without expanding the planting area, as long as the planting methods are improved, such as replacing chemical fertilizers with part of organic fertilizers, soybean yields can be increased by up to 60%. Among them, the Songliao Plain is considered to have the greatest potential for yield increase (Zhao et al., 2023). Variety improvement and improved field management (such as more scientific fertilization) also make each plant have more pods, and the yield naturally increases (Figure 2) (Zhang et al., 2023). Figure 2 Spatial distribution of the national unified soybean variety testing (NUSVT) sites between the period of 2006 and 2020 across China (a). Effects of the interactions of cultivars, sowing dates and nitrogen inputs on soybean performance in the field experiment (b, photograph by the authors). NEC, HHH, and SMR represent Northeast China, Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, and Southern Multi-cropping Region, respectively. The background image represents the harvested soybean area in 2010, which was obtained from the Spatial Productional Allocation Model provided by International Food Policy Research Institute (https://www.mapspam.info/). The field experiment represented the interactions of 2 cultivars, 3 sowing dates, and 4 nitrogen managements (Adopted from Zhang et al., 2023)
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 258-264 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 262 6.2 Quality improvements in Huang-Huai-Hai Plain with moderate substitution In the Huanghuaihai Plain, planting soybeans in rotation or intercropping systems has a good effect. Yields have increased, soil organic carbon has increased, and overall carbon emissions have decreased. For example, when wheat and corn are planted together with soybeans, annual grain production has increased by 3.6% and energy production has increased by 6.7%. Moreover, more money can be made and planting is more sustainable (Yang et al., 2025). Field trials have also been conducted in this area, combining straw mulch with fertilization, which has increased soybean yields by an average of 17.2%. The structure of roots and leaves has improved, which has also improved seed quality and protein content. Compared with the old wheat-corn rotation system, wheat-soybean rotation produces more protein, higher returns, and is more environmentally friendly. 6.3 Soil improvement and fertilizer efficiency enhancement in southern hilly regions In the southern hilly areas and similar southwestern mountainous areas, planting soybeans and corn together (intercropping) is more effective than planting only one crop, and the total yield can be increased by about 12%. By adjusting the planting method, such as wider strips and appropriate row spacing, soybean yields and fertilizer use can be more effective. Studies in these regions also show that soybeans have many benefits when used in rotation or intercropping: they can make the soil structure softer, increase organic matter, and improve nutrient cycling. These changes make the land more fertile and more conducive to long-term planting in the future (Yang et al., 2024b). 7 Concluding Remarks In many planting methods, replacing part of chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers can continuously improve crop yields, soil fertility and the quality of agricultural products. Generally speaking, the replacement ratio is between 30% and 50%. This practice can not only improve yields and water use efficiency, but also bring better economic benefits. It can also increase organic carbon in the soil, making nutrients more easily absorbed by plants and increasing the number of microbial species in the soil. These changes are all related to a more reasonable nutrient supply time, that is, fertilizers can better meet the growth needs of crops, thereby improving yields and quality. This "partial replacement" method has many other benefits. It can prevent soil acidification, reduce nitrous oxide emissions and nutrient loss, and is more environmentally friendly. Moreover, it can help farmers make more money, and the income per unit area can be increased by up to 46%. This method is suitable for different regions and various crops, so it is a very practical and popular green planting method. At the same time, the use of organic fertilizers can also better recycle and utilize organic waste such as farmyard manure and straw, which also makes it more supported in policy and more popular in practice. Looking ahead, partially replacing chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers may become an important direction for achieving sustainable agricultural development. It can take into account both environmental protection and farmers' benefits without sacrificing yields. However, future research needs to continue to improve, such as finding the most suitable replacement ratio, controlling greenhouse gas emissions (such as carbon dioxide and methane), and making more specific plans for different regions, soils and crops. As soil management and microbial utilization technologies become more mature, combining organic fertilizers with chemical fertilizers will be a key step in achieving a high-yield, environmentally friendly and risk-resistant agricultural system. Acknowledgments We appreciate Dr Huang from the Hainan Institution of Biotechnology for his assistance in references collection and discussion for this work completion. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 265-273 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 265 Research Insight Open Access High-Density Planting Combined With Lodging-Resistance Traits Improves Field Performance in Maize Jinhua Cheng, Wei Wang Institute of Life Sciences, Jiyang College of Zhejiang A&F University, Zhuji, 311800, Zhejiang, China Corresponding email: wei.wang@jicat.org Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.6 doi: 10.5376/fc.2025.08.0027 Received: 10 Sep., 2025 Accepted: 26 Oct., 2025 Published: 11 Nov., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Cheng and Wang, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Cheng J.H., and Wang W., 2025, High-density planting combined with lodging-resistance traits improves field performance in maize, Field Crop, 8(6): 265-273 (doi: 10.5376/fc.2025.08.0027) Abstract High-density planting is an important means to increase the yield per unit area of corn, which is conducive to making full use of light and heat resources and optimizing the photosynthetic efficiency of the population. However, the consequent risk of lodging has significantly increased, seriously affecting the field performance, grain filling and mechanical harvesting efficiency of corn. This study systematically explored the synergistic relationship between high-density planting and lodging resistance traits. It sorted out the related genetic, physiological basis and breeding progress from aspects such as stem strength, root structure and plant type regulation. Through the analysis of the research progress of key lodging resistance genes and QTL, it clarified the important role of lodging resistance traits in high-density breeding. And an integrated path of molecular marker-assisted selection and compact plant type cultivation was proposed. Field cases taking Northeast, North China and Southwest China as examples show that the collaborative optimization of germplasm traits and cultivation management measures is conducive to achieving high-density and stable yields. This study aims to establish a sustainable and mechanized corn production system and promote the application of smart agriculture in anti-lodging planting. Keywords Maize; High-density planting; Anti-lodging property; Corn field performance; Breeding strategy 1 Introduction Planting corn more densely is a path that countries have had to take in recent years in order to increase the yield per unit area. The reason behind this approach is actually not complicated - there is not enough land, but the demand for food is still on the rise. Against this backdrop, high-density planting has gradually become the "default option" for increasing production. Especially with the improvement of breeding levels and field management techniques, more and more corn varieties can withstand the pressure of dense planting, and the suitable density in various regions is also quietly increasing. In a country like the United States, the planting density has increased from 55 000 plants per hectare to nearly 100 000 plants over the past few decades, and the output has also doubled accordingly. China and other major producing countries are also following a similar path (Ren et al., 2025). However, in fact, the ability to adapt to high density does not only rely on "planting well", but also makes significant contributions from hybrids - structural features such as short stalks, upright leaves, and deep roots not only resist compression but also make more efficient use of water, fertilizer and light. However, things are not that simple. It's good to plant densely, but once management is inadequate or the varieties are not resistant to being squeezed, problems will arise immediately when competition breaks out. When there is insufficient light and the plants cannot compete with water and fertilizer, they start to "grow taller", resulting in elevated panicle positions and soft stems. When a storm came, some fields collapsed before they could be harvested. Lodging is not merely about reducing production. Mechanical harvesting has also become a problem, delaying agricultural work and easily affecting the quality of grains. Especially for those hybrid varieties with overly tall plants and insufficiently hard stems, they are more prone to problems under density pressure. At this point, relying solely on one breeding or a single measure is not sufficient. Efforts should be made simultaneously from both the breeding and cultivation levels. This study aims to systematically evaluate how the combination of high-density planting and lodging resistance traits improves the field performance of corn, review the genetic, physiological and agronomic factors affecting
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 265-273 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 266 lodging under dense planting conditions, assess the latest progress in enhancing lodging resistance breeding and management practices, and explore its significance for sustainable yield increase and large-scale mechanized production. By integrating existing knowledge and highlighting practical strategies, this study aims to provide references for breeding programs and field management, and promote the development of high-yield and lodging resistant maize systems. 2 Genetic and Physiological Basis of Lodging Resistance in Maize 2.1 Stem strength and the development mechanism of mechanical tissue Not all corn lodging problems lie in the roots; the strength of the stems is often the key. Physical indicators such as stem diameter, bending resistance, and cortical puncture resistance are basically inversely proportional to the lodging rate (Manga-Robles et al., 2021). However, when it comes to what can enhance these strengths, the core lies in the development of mechanical tissues, such as the condition of thick-walled tissues and vascular bundles. Especially the thickness of the cell wall, the amount of cellulose content, the arrangement structure of the cell wall, etc., will all affect whether the stem has a "waist" or not. The lower internodes are a key area. If the lignin accumulates insufficiently here, the stem bark's resistance to penetration will be poor, and problems are more likely to occur in stronger winds (Li et al., 2022). Nowadays, many breeding and management techniques are targeting this point, with the aim of rapidly depositing dry matter and synthesizing more lignin in the internodes at the base, making the stems more "tough". 2.2 Influence of root architecture and rooting depth on lodging resistance Ultimately, whether corn can stand steadily or not, its roots also account for half of the sky. Especially in a densely planted environment, if the roots are not firm, it will be troublesome if they fall over during wind and rain (Zheng et al., 2023). Some traits stand out in this regard, such as a wide enough root crown, a large root Angle, thick pillar roots, and deep roots. All these help the roots to better "grasp the ground". Some studies have specifically evaluated the stability of roots by the ratio of superweight to vertical tensile strength (Xue et al., 2020). However, it is not the case that being thick and strong is necessarily good. Some detailed traits, such as root hair density and the distribution hierarchy of roots, also have an impact on lodging resistance, and these characteristics cannot be easily observed with the naked eye. Now that the planting density has increased, it is even more necessary to consider how to adjust the structure of the roots, such as strengthening the embryo roots and increasing the dry matter in the underground part. Only in this way can the plants be stabilized without affecting nutrient absorption (Zhang et al., 2023). 2.3 Advances in the identification of key lodging-resistance genes and QTLs Research has been conducted for many years, and many QTLS and candidate genes related to lodging resistance have been located (Sun et al., 2020). On the stem side, it is mainly the mechanism of cell wall biosynthesis at work, such as genes involving membrane steroid-binding proteins, pectin methylesterase, and cell cycle regulation, which all have regulatory effects on how cells grow and divide (Yang et al., 2024). In terms of roots, the sites that regulate the number of root nodes, root angles and support root development have also been identified. Quite a few genes have "part-time" roles both above and below ground, that is, they are pleiotropy. However, the genetic structure of these traits is complex, with many superior interactions, and they are quite sensitive to the environment. Ultimately, integrating those alleles that are conducive to strong stems and stable roots is still the most direct breeding breakthrough to achieve lodging resistance under close planting conditions. 3 Effects of High-Density Planting on Maize Physiological and Ecological Traits 3.1 Changes in canopy structure and photosynthetic efficiency A closed canopy is not necessarily a bad thing. Once the planting density is increased, indicators like LAI naturally follow suit, the interception of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) also increases, and the overall biomass of the population increases (Figure 1) (Tian et al., 2022). However, the lower leaves were not so lucky. The shading problem was obvious. Light couldn't penetrate and the photosynthetic efficiency dropped sharply. Some modern breeding ideas are quite interesting, such as the "intelligent canopy" approach, where the upper leaves stand upright and the lower leaves spread flat, allowing light to penetrate more reasonably. The effect is
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 265-273 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 267 particularly obvious when planted densely (Tian et al., 2024). However, it should be said that the density cannot be increased too much either. Otherwise, PAR cannot reach the lower layer, the chlorophyll content will decrease accordingly, the photosynthetic efficiency will drop, and the final yield will also be blocked (Yan et al., 2024). Figure 1 A schematic model depicting the leaf position and incident light of maize. The IU, and IO, IM, and IL are PAR values on a horizontal level at upper, middle and lower leaf layers. The thickness of the red arrows represent the light density that is intercepted by different leaf positions (Adopted from Tian et al., 2022)
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 265-273 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 268 3.2 Intra-population competition and nutrient distribution patterns The denser the density, the more intense the competition for nutrients. This is a fundamental rule. Water, light and nutrients have all become scarce resources. The opportunities for individual plants to obtain them have decreased, and the distribution of nutrients will also become more skewed (Li et al., 2018). Especially in plots where soil supply is uneven, the root systems compete more fiercely with each other, and in the end, it may even lower the overall yield. In contrast, medium density is more stable, with a more uniform distribution of canopy nutrients and higher nitrogen utilization efficiency. However, if the density continues to increase, the space and nutrients allocated to each plant will be less, the photosynthetic nitrogen efficiency of the lower leaves will be limited, and the nutrient deficiency phenomenon will be more prominent (Wang et al., 2019; Tang, 2024). 3.3 Growth period regulation and plant uniformity under high-density conditions High-density planting seems to grow fast and the canopy takes shape quickly, but this is not always a good thing. The leaves age too early, especially when they are too dense, compressing the entire rapid growth period (Wu et al., 2024). Not all varieties can adapt so well. Some dense-resistant materials can maintain a relatively stable canopy and photosynthetic state even in high-density environments, with small yield fluctuations (Ye et al., 2025). However, the issue of uniformity is not solely dependent on variety; it is also related to management. For instance, how nitrogen fertilizer is used and whether the variety is compact can both affect the consistency of the plants and the duration of their growth. Only by properly matching these management measures can the dense planting system perform more stably. 4 Breeding Strategies for Lodging Resistance under High-Density Conditions 4.1 Evaluation and utilization of lodging-resistant germplasm resources Not all corn varieties can stand firm in high-density environments. Screening good germplasm resources is the first step in breeding varieties resistant to lodging. In recent years, the screening work has covered hundreds and thousands of inbred lines and hybrids. Among them, bending strength, stem thickness, pericarp hardness, spike height, and stem cellulose content have become several recurring core indicators. However, some traits do not alone indicate the issue. For instance, a high spike position does not necessarily mean that it will definitely fall over. It is necessary to consider them comprehensively. The results of clustering and principal component analysis did provide quite a few clues - for instance, among 220 inbred lines, in groups like Luda Hongsui, some key alleles were particularly prominent (Zheng et al., 2023). Improved varieties like J133A, JM25, JM115, and JM1895 have performed exceptionally well. They are not only less prone to collapse but also have decent yields, making them suitable for mechanization (Yang et al., 2024). However, it should be noted that environmental impacts cannot be ignored. Lodging resistance is not just about performing well in one plot; it is best to verify it in multiple sites over many years. 4.2 Genetic improvement of target traits and marker-assisted selection When it comes to breeding, relying on experience to "guess" is no longer sufficient. One has to rely on molecular means to do things meticulously. Traits related to lodging resistance, such as stem thickness, stem bending resistance, and pericarp hardness, have now identified many candidate genes and loci through GWAS and QTL mapping. However, many of these superior alleles have not yet been truly introduced into mainstream varieties. That is to say, there is still much room for improvement. Techniques such as molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) offer breeders a shortcut - they can specifically introduce fragments related to stem strength, plant type, and cell wall structure directly into the high-yield background. For instance, through transcriptome analysis, it was found that genes of those cell wall biosynthesis pathways were frequently upregulated in anti-inversion lines, which precisely supports the application of such molecular markers (Guo et al., 2021). However, relying solely on molecules is not enough. It is still necessary to combine on-site performance, taking a two-pronged approach of phenotyping and molecules, in order to improve efficiency. 4.3 Integrated breeding approaches for compact plant architecture and lodging resistance To carry out high-density planting and ensure that the varieties can withstand the "crowding", efforts must be made simultaneously in terms of plant shape and resistance to lodging. The current approach is quite different. It's
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.6, 265-273 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 269 not just about who grows faster or more, but rather about having a low center of gravity, a reasonable distribution of dry matter, and a strong root system. Some hybrid varieties exhibit this "compact" structure: both the plant and the spike position are relatively short, and more dry matter sinks to the base of the stem. Such a structure is conducive to stabilizing the center of gravity, improving lodging resistance, and the yield does not decrease (Zhou and Liang, 2024). In addition, through genome-wide association analysis and double haploid lines, some genomic regions that control these traits have been identified, which provides a direction for simultaneous improvement using genomic selection or MAS. One more point that cannot be ignored is that the combination that can resist lodging and achieve high yields should be selected from the heterosis group, especially those parent resources with strong compatibility, as the probability of successful breeding will be greater. 5 Case Studies: Application of High-Density Lodging-Resistant Maize Varieties in Different Ecological Regions 5.1 Northeast China: density adaptation performance of varieties such as ‘Zhengdan 958’ In Northeast China, when growing corn, the conditions of temperature and accumulated temperature are always an inescapable reality. Zhengdan 958 (ZD958) is popular in this area because it can still maintain a good yield performance under changes in heat and precipitation. However, this variety is not all-round - for instance, in high-latitude regions with low accumulated temperature, its grain weight and total yield are not so ideal. It performs best between 3450 ° C and 3,700 ° C. Even so, if the density is increased too high or the temperature does not cooperate, the grouting speed will slow down and the risk of lodging will also increase rapidly. Some experiments also pointed out that interplanting ZD958 with taller varieties not only reduces lodging but also does not result in yield loss - the reason is that ZD958, being short, instead serves as a natural support and helps optimize the light distribution of the stand (Ren et al., 2025). Of course, density must be combined with agricultural techniques, such as precise irrigation and farming adjustments, to bring out its advantages. 5.2 North China Plain: comparative performance of ‘Denghai 605’ under medium and high densities In North China, 'Denghai 605' (DH605) seems to be better at consuming high-density substances than ZD958. Field trials have shown that its yield remains stable at a planting density of approximately 78,000 plants per hectare, and its resistance to lodging is also strong enough. If the density is further increased, the output can still rise a little bit, but the prerequisite is that management cannot be relaxed (Liu et al., 2022). The reason why it stands steadily is mainly because of its stable plant shape, hard stems and high lignin content. In contrast, some common varieties tend to wobble at this density. However, it's not the case that the denser it is, the better. Both too dense and too sparse densities will lower the light utilization efficiency (RUE) and yield. Therefore, the density setting cannot be uniform and depends on the specific plot and the year. Growth regulators like enpaclozole, when combined with scientific management, can also further stabilize its performance. 5.3 Southwestern Hilly Areas: combined effects of high-density varieties and lodging control measures When growing corn in hilly areas, it is not only necessary to consider whether the variety is suitable, but also how the land is laid out and the density is arranged. In the high-altitude areas of southwest China, varieties like Jinyu 838 and Xingzhongyu 801 can achieve a yield of over 12.8 tons per hectare at a density of 82,500 plants per hectare (Cheng et al., 2025). This sounds quite good, but as the density increases, the problem of lodging often follows. Especially in areas with strong solar radiation, frequent rainfall and strong winds, the challenge of resisting lodging is more obvious (Figure 2) (Lei et al., 2025). To achieve stable production, it is not enough to rely solely on the resistance of the variety. The corresponding management measures must keep up, such as using some growth regulators, adjusting the farming methods or flexibly arranging the density. Selecting hybrid varieties with thick stems, deep root systems and reliable performance in the local area is the key for these regions to follow a high-density route. 6 Challenges and Optimization Strategies in Field Application 6.1 Impact of agronomic practices on lodging resistance (e.g., fertilization and planting density) High-density corn planting is not simply a matter of "more planting means more harvest". There are many details behind it that affect the risk of lodging. For instance, the management of nitrogen fertilizers is quite meticulous.
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