Field Crop 2025, Vol.8 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc © 2025 CropSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved.
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc © 2025 CropSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Publisher CropSci Publisher Editedby Editorial Team of Field Crop Email: edit@fc.cropscipublisher.com Website: http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc Address: 11388 Stevenston Hwy, PO Box 96016, Richmond, V7A 5J5, British Columbia Canada FieldCrop is an International Journal, is an open access, peer reviewed journal published online by CropSci Publisher. This journal publishes research articles of field crops, as well as innovative research conducted in the field, farm or on the land related to edible agricultural food crops. The research must be based on cropping system, crop physiology, crop genetics and breeding. Topics include (but are not limited to) different aspects like crop management, agronomy, plant pathology, entomology, soil science, vegetable and horticultural science related phenomena. All the articles published in Field Crop are Open Access, and are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. CropSci Publisher uses CrossCheck service to identify academic plagiarism through the world’s leading plagiarism prevention tool, iParadigms, and to protect the original authors’ copyrights. CropSci Publisher is an international Open Access publisher specializing in crop science, and crops-related research registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group (SPG), founded in British Columbia of Canada.
Field Crop (online), 2025, Vol.8, No.5 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc © 2025 CropSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Latest Content Climate-Smart Cotton Farming: Adapting Field Practices to Drought and Heat Stress Jiayi Wu, Xiaojing Yang, Yuxin Zhu Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 213-221 Integrated Management of Weeds and Pests in Large-Scale Lentil Cultivation Guanli Fu Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 222-230 Analysis on the Application Effect of Soil Testing and Formula Fertilization in Cowpea Planting Xiaoxi Zhou, Tianxia Guo Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 231-237 Eco-environmental Benefits of Integrated Rice-Fish Farming: Reducing the Impact of Fertilizer and Pesticide Use Deshan Huang, Yuandong Hong, Qifu Zhang Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 238-246 Effect of Wheat Sowing Density on Seedling Growth and Final Yield Pingping Yang, Xuemei Liu Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 247-257
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 213-221 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 213 Research Insight Open Access Climate-Smart Cotton Farming: Adapting Field Practices to Drought and Heat Stress Jiayi Wu, Xiaojing Yang, Yuxin Zhu Modern Agriculture Research Center, Cuixi Academy of Biotechnology, Zhuji, 311800, Zhejiang, China Corresponding email: yuxin.zhu@cuixi.org Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.5 doi: 10.5376/fc.2025.08.0021 Received: 03 Jul., 2025 Accepted: 11 Aug., 2025 Published: 05 Sep., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Wu et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Wu J.Y., Yang X.J., and Zhu Y.X., 2025, Climate-smart cotton farming: adapting field practices to drought and heat stress, Field Crop, 8(5): 213-221 (doi: 10.5376/fc.2025.08.0021) Abstract With the increasingly severe global climate change, drought and high-temperature stress have become the main environmental factors restricting the improvement of cotton yield and quality. The traditional field management model has many limitations in responding to extreme climate events, making it particularly urgent to promote the application of climate-smart agriculture in cotton production. This study focuses on the physiological response mechanisms of cotton under drought and high-temperature stress conditions. It systematically sorts out the key technical paths such as current climate-intelligent farming measures, breeding of stress-resistant varieties, intelligent irrigation and monitoring. By analyzing the practical cases of typical cotton-growing areas at home and abroad in water-saving cultivation, sowing period adjustment, heat stress monitoring and precise irrigation, it explores their adaptability and promotion effects. It also looks forward to the future development direction of climate-intelligent cotton planting models based on multi-source data fusion and decision support systems. This study aims to provide theoretical basis and technical support for efficient and sustainable cotton production in the context of addressing climate change. Keywords Climate-smart agriculture; Cotton cultivation; Drought stress; High-temperature stress; Field management 1 Introduction Not all crops can be as vulnerable to climate change as cotton. Especially in those arid or semi-arid regions where water resources are already tight and temperatures are relatively high, once extreme weather becomes frequent, it is often these economic crops that rely on stable climate conditions that are the first to be "injured". Cotton is widely cultivated in over 30 countries around the world, making it a "sensitive indicator" under the fluctuations of climate variation. But the problems are not limited to temperature and rainfall. Soil degradation, the intensification of pests and diseases, and even the vulnerability of farmers themselves at the socio-economic level have all been superimposed on the risks of this industry. It is easy to imagine that relying solely on old methods will not be enough. The entire industry has begun to realize that "how to adapt to climate change" is no longer a problem to be considered in the future, but a reality that must be addressed at present (Khan et al., 2018; Rahman et al., 2020; Asma et al., 2025; Liu et al., 2025). Drought and high-temperature stress are the most critical abiotic factors restricting global cotton production. From seedling emergence, root development, photosynthesis all the way to bell formation, hardly any of these physiological processes can be completely avoided. If the plants develop slowly, the cotton bolls cannot be retained, and eventually the harvest will not increase. Some years even directly caused significant losses for farmers (Ul-Allah, 2020; Farooq et al., 2023). In the face of these challenges, so-called climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has begun to be mentioned by more people. The core of it is not mysterious. It is to combine water-saving practices, resilient varieties and flexible management to protect cotton fields with a stronger and more futures-adaptive system, and even reduce some greenhouse gas emissions incidentally (Imran et al., 2018). This study reviews the current and projected impacts of climate change on cotton production, with a focus on drought and high-temperature stresses. It explores the physiological, biochemical and agronomic responses of cotton to these stresses, and highlights the latest advancements in cotton stress resistance breeding and management. This study integrates the evidence of the effectiveness of climate-smart practices, identifies
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 213-221 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 214 promising genotypes and technologies, and proposes feasible adaptation strategies to provide a comprehensive framework for stakeholders (farmers, breeders, and policymakers) to implement climate-smart cotton cultivation, ensuring sustainable production and improved livelihoods under changing climate conditions. 2 Physiological Responses of Cotton to Drought and Heat Stress 2.1 Root development and stomatal regulation under water deficit When there is a shortage of water, cotton has more than one way to deal with it. The most direct one is usually that the root system "roots down" even deeper. In this way, even if the surface cracks, the deep moisture still has a chance to be absorbed. During drought periods, this change in the root system is actually one of the fundamental strategies for cotton to sustain its life. However, the above-ground parts also "subtract" - for instance, the closure of stomata is almost the most common response of the plant. Closing the stomata can reduce water evaporation, but the problem is that it also prevents carbon dioxide from entering, and thus photosynthesis drops. This balance is mainly regulated by abscisic acid (ABA). Although it can save lives, the side effect is that the yield is often sacrificed as well (Ullah et al., 2017). Not all varieties perform the same. Some cotton genotypes can maintain a high stomatal conductance and relative moisture content under pressure, and thus are more drought-tolerant (Anwar et al., 2021). 2.2 Effects of high temperature on photosynthesis, boll retention, and fiber development When a heat wave hits, the first function of cotton to "fail" is photosynthesis. The incoordination of stomatal switches is one aspect, but the inactivation of key enzymes (such as Rubisco) and the damage to chloroplast structure are actually more fatal internal causes (Carmo-Silva et al., 2012). Further down, as the temperature rises, the flowers and cotton bolls are prone to dropping, the development cycle shorts, and the final harvest is naturally affected. Don't have too much hope for the quality either (Abro et al., 2023). The worst-case scenario is that high temperatures and drought occur simultaneously, causing the retention rate of cotton bolls to drop directly, and the decline in seed cotton yield is almost inevitable (Bista et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024). 2.3 Oxidative stress and resistance responses under combined drought and heat stress Under dual stress, it's not just a matter of water and heat; oxidative stress also rises. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde began to accumulate in the cells (Zafar et al., 2023), which was another blow to cotton. Some drought-resistant genotypes can rapidly mobilize the defense system. The activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase will increase, and the levels of protective metabolites such as proline and phenols will also increase simultaneously (Figure 1) (Sekmen et al., 2014; Hasan et al., 2018). With these biochemical defense lines, plants can somewhat preserve their cellular structure, but this mechanism is not equally effective in all varieties, and the performance differences are quite obvious. 3 Overview of Climate-Smart Agronomic Practices 3.1 Water-saving tillage practices: mulching, ridge-furrow, and deep tillage Drip irrigation cannot be rolled out everywhere, especially in areas with limited water resources and insufficient investment. At this point, some seemingly "not-so-new" water-saving methods come into play, such as covering the ground with plastic film, deeply loosening the soil or using furrow cultivation. Many experiments have confirmed that they can indeed help cotton fields reduce water evaporation, and some can even improve soil structure and regulate temperature incidentally. Ridge cultivation can also conveniently solve drainage problems in areas with uneven terrain or sudden heavy rain (Khalid et al., 2025). In addition, "labor-saving" management methods such as laser land leveling and less plowing, although not as technologically advanced as drip irrigation, are no less effective in improving water utilization and reducing soil erosion. They are even more suitable for long-term use by small and medium-sized farmers. 3.2 Crop rotation and intercropping strategies to enhance resource use efficiency It's not that cotton should be planted every year. Sometimes, alternating planting can actually yield better results. For instance, some regions choose to rotate legumes or grains in cotton fields or arrange some cover crops before and after the cotton season. The results show that the soil becomes looser, nutrients are more stable, and pests can
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 213-221 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 215 also be suppressed (Vitale et al., 2024). Some farmers have also attempted intercropping cotton with other crops, using limited plots to achieve higher utilization rates. Especially in years when land is tight and the climate fluctuates greatly, this kind of "group planting" appears to be more flexible. Ultimately, these methods are not complicated and do not rely on heavy investment. They are developed through the refinement of experience and data. This type of approach is now also classified as "climate-smart" agriculture, which not only focuses on immediate yields but also cares about soil nutrients, ecological resilience, and carbon emission control (Arshad et al., 2021). Figure 1 Electron micrographs of leaf mesophyll of cotton species (TM-1, Zhongmian-16 and Pima4-S) under drought stress and control conditions. The TEM micrograph of leaf mesophyll cells of TM-1, Zhongmian-16, and Pima4-S under control shows intact chloroplasts, well-developed grana (G), mitochondria (MC), starch grains (SG) with smooth cell wall (CW), and plasma membrane (PM). (A, Control and B, drought) TEM micrographs of leaf mesophyll cells of TM-1 show oval shaped chloroplast fewer grana (G), swollen mitochondria (MC) with smooth cell wall (CW); (C, control and D, drought) TEM micrographs of leaf mesophyll cell of Zhongmian-16 maintained elongated shape of chloroplast with less dense matrix of grana (G) raptured cell wall (CW), starch grain (SG), nucleolus present (Nuc), lamella (La) and mitochondria (MC); (E, control and F, drought) TEM micrographs of leaf mesophyll cell of Pima4-S show oval shaped chloroplast fewer grana (G), lamella (La). Scale bars represent 5 µm (Adopted from Hasan et al., 2018) 3.3 Sowing date adjustment and crop layout optimization to mitigate heat stress When encountering a heat wave, sometimes it's not something that can be endured by simply putting in effort, but if you plant wisely, you can still avoid some risks. For instance, slightly moving the sowing time forward or backward to avoid the high temperatures during the flowering period of cotton, or adjusting the planting density and widening the row spacing to make the air more circulating and the distribution of sunlight more reasonable, these methods seem simple but have considerable effects. Especially in years with frequent high temperatures, these "folk remedies" are more direct than complex engineering techniques (Engonopoulos et al., 2021). Of course, it doesn't show results every year. However, based on the field records of the past few seasons, the plots that have made these adjustments have indeed seen more stable yields under extreme weather conditions (Wu et al., 2023; Yang and Zhu, 2025).
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 213-221 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 216 4 Breeding and Utilization of Stress-Resilient Varieties 4.1 Identification and screening of drought- and heat-tolerant cotton germplasm Not all cotton varieties perform the same in drought or high temperatures. Some genotypes, such as MNH-786, KAHKSHAN, CEMB-33 and FH-142, have demonstrated stable heat and drought tolerance in multiple experiments and field tests and are regarded as materials worthy of key utilization in future stress-resistant breeding (Reddy et al., 2020; Zafar et al., 2021; Shani et al., 2025). However, it is not the case that stress resistance can be fully judged solely by yield performance. Some materials that seem to grow normally actually lack physiological toughness or fiber stability. Researchers are now also increasingly focusing on metabolic indicators such as proline content and antioxidant enzyme activity to screen genotypes that exhibit stronger stress resistance potential (Majeed et al., 2024). 4.2 Application of marker-assisted selection in stress resistance improvement The goals of drought resistance and heat resistance are not difficult to talk about, but traditional breeding relying solely on field selection is a bit slow. In fact, this issue was noticed by everyone many years ago. After the molecular markers came out, the situation began to change. Technologies such as QTL mapping, GWAS, and transcriptome techniques can now more quickly identify key genes associated with adversity, and when combined with MAS, they can precisely target breeding materials (Rahman et al., 2021; Rasheed et al., 2023; Patil et al., 2024). Of course, MAS itself also has its shortcomings, especially when the target trait is controlled by multiple genes and is also affected by the environment. It is not realistic to rely on it as a single tool to handle everything. But when it is used in combination with traditional breeding methods, it can indeed significantly accelerate the process. As for CRISPR/Cas9, many studies have now begun to attempt to apply it to stress response genes for direct "point-to-point" gene editing (Ahmed et al., 2024; Luqman et al., 2025). Compared with traditional screening, this approach has a shorter path and may be an even more important step in the future. 4.3 Evaluation of ecological adaptability of stress-resilient cultivars across regions It's easy to select the varieties and they can be planted in different places. Whether they all "adapt to the soil and water" is another matter. Sometimes, a material that performs exceptionally well in one place may fail when viewed from a different dimension. Breeders have witnessed this kind of thing too many times. Therefore, regional adaptability tests are an indispensable step. Generally, several places with significant differences in ecological conditions are found, and the same batch of materials are planted together. In recent years, technology has also advanced. Drones have entered the fields to help capture some indicators that were previously invisible to the human eye, such as canopy temperature and photosynthetic activity (Farooq et al., 2023; Gu et al., 2024). These high-throughput phenotypic analyses, in combination with multi-point field trials, enable researchers to more precisely determine whether this material is suitable for promotion to arid or high-temperature areas and whether it can maintain a stable yield. In the current context where climate change is becoming increasingly unreasonable, making such a judgment is actually of great significance for breeding decisions (Shahzad et al., 2022). 5 Smart Irrigation and Field Management Technologies 5.1 Design and control of sensor-based precision irrigation systems When to water the fields and how much to water is actually much more complicated than it sounds. Abnormal climate, differences in plots, and ever-changing crop demands make judgments based on experience, which is often not very reliable. In some places, excessive irrigation not only wastes water but also easily causes diseases. If the irrigation is insufficient, the crops won't grow well. At this point, the intervention of the sensor system becomes even more valuable. They can collect real-time information such as soil moisture and temperature. The background system, in combination with the Internet of Things and the embedded control platform, decides whether to irrigate and how much water to irrigate. Some systems have also integrated fuzzy logic or rule-based algorithms, enabling them to automatically adjust their plans based on the status of the plots without the need for constant human supervision. Although this type of method did not become widespread overnight, it is indeed replacing the previous practice of managing irrigation based on intuition, especially in areas with tight water resources or high production requirements, where it is more favored (Bin et al., 2023; Guo and Chen, 2024; Zhu and Luo, 2025).
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 213-221 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 217 5.2 Irrigation model optimization based on soil moisture and weather data The traditional judgment of irrigation timing often relies on experience, but it is inadequate in responding to extreme weather. Nowadays, irrigation models can integrate data from soil moisture, weather forecasts and the physiological state of crops to more accurately predict the optimal time and amount of irrigation. It is worth mentioning that machine learning and reinforcement learning algorithms have been introduced into such systems. Compared with the previous models based on fixed rules, they perform better in terms of adaptability and prediction accuracy. This algorithm is not only adaptable to the temperature or humidity changes of the day, but also can learn the reaction characteristics of different plots over a long period of time, providing managers with more reliable decision-making basis (Bounajra et al., 2024; Madhuri et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). 5.3 Real-time monitoring of heat stress using remote sensing and UAVs Heat stress is not always visible. Sometimes the surface of the cotton field is calm, but in fact, the plants have long been "weak from the heat". It is difficult to detect problems in the first place by manual field patrol, especially when the area is large, it is easier to miss anomalies. However, remote sensing and unmanned aerial vehicles are different. After they fly around once, data such as canopy temperature, soil moisture and plant growth conditions are all available, and they are all high-definition images. In some cases, the system has already identified the "early signals" of heat stress even before a human response. However, merely monitoring is not enough. Once it can be integrated with the precise irrigation system, water will follow the field that is most "hot" first. This approach is more economical and effective than watering the entire field in a one-size-fits-all manner. Especially in years when heat waves are becoming increasingly common, this approach is indeed crucial for maintaining production (Morchid et al., 2024; Shaikh and Bansod, 2024). 6 Case Studies: Field Practices for Managing Drought and Heat Stress 6.1 Precision water-saving cultivation models in arid cotton areas of Northwest China Insufficient water is not a new problem in cotton-growing areas like Xinjiang. Farmers have long been accustomed to being thrifty under limited conditions. So-called precise water conservation did not have a mature model from the very beginning; most of the time, it was a case of feeling one's way forward. Operations like delaying the first irrigation and allowing plants to adapt to a brief drought during the seedling stage may seem simple, but they are indeed useful for enhancing resistance. Studies have simulated that as long as irrigation is properly arranged, water conservation can approach 57%, while production is not significantly affected (Wang et al., 2023; Lin et al., 2024). Of course, the issue of water is often accompanied by insufficient heat. Therefore, many places have tried to switch to early-maturing and cold-tolerant cotton varieties, and at the same time appropriately adjust the sowing time, hoping to find a more stable balance point in the context of both water and temperature shortages (Zhang et al., 2024). 6.2 Management strategies for heat stress adaptation in hot and dry cotton regions of India Some cotton-growing areas in India are so hot that it's hard to breathe. Coupled with frequent droughts, the pressure on crops can be imagined. Faced with this situation, agricultural management has also begun to make adjustments. For instance, plastic film mulching is used to lock in moisture and lower the temperature, while foliar spraying of antioxidants such as proline or betaine helps crops alleviate the damage caused by high temperatures. Meanwhile, by rationally supplementing nutrients, the physiological state of plants can also be stabilized to a certain extent (Aiswarya et al., 2025). Of course, if these measures are not combined with the drought-resistant varieties selected and bred, their effects will be limited. Research shows that when the two are combined, both fiber quality and yield loss can be significantly controlled (EL Sabagh et al., 2020). 6.3 Integrated application of smart monitoring and stress-resilient breeding in the Southern U.S. cotton belt In the major cotton-growing areas of the southern United States, the days of relying on "experience-based farming" are gradually passing. Nowadays, there may be many soil moisture sensors hidden in the plots, and the drones flying in the air are not just taking photos - they are collecting real-time data on temperature, humidity and crop conditions (Khalequzzaman et al., 2023). However, relying solely on these "eyes" is not enough. Some growers also combine plant growth regulators, such as methylpiperium, to adjust the growth rhythm of cotton and
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 213-221 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 218 help them survive periods of high temperature or drought (Lee et al., 2023). The final key still lies in the quality of the variety itself. If drought-resistant and heat-tolerant varieties are selected, along with these precise management tools, there will be more confidence in dealing with complex climates, and the yield and quality will also be more stable (Figure 2) (Mishra et al., 2017). Figure 2 Phenotypes of wild-type and OsSIZ1-transgenic cotton plants before and after heat treatment. (A) Before heat treatment. Plants were grown under normal conditions for a month. (B) Plants were treated with heat stress (37°C for 4 h/d) for 45 d before the photograph was taken. WT, wild-type; OS-1 and OS-3, two independent OsSIZ1-transgenic lines (Adopted from Mishra et al., 2017) 7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives Applying climate-smart agriculture (CSA) to cotton production is not a new topic. In the past, it was more like an advocacy, but now it is gradually becoming a practical need. Practices such as adjusting the sowing time, using stress-resistant varieties, and improving irrigation methods may seem ordinary, but they have demonstrated effects of increasing yields, conserving water and fertilizer, and even reducing emissions in many experiments and actual plantations. However, these approaches are not a one-size-fits-all solution. To truly implement them, it still depends on the coordination of localized strategies, the continuous advancement of technology, and the willingness of farmers to give them a try. Moreover, field management is no longer as simple as relying on "experience in farming". Nowadays, data sources are diverse - weather forecasts, soil moisture monitoring, and crop model outputs, all of which can be integrated into Decision support systems (DSS). Models like DSSAT and APSIM can run simulations in different scenarios and provide reference plans in advance for when to apply nitrogen fertilizer and on which day the sowing effect is best. In addition, with the real-time data integration of ICT tools, the operational space for growers has become much more flexible than before. What should I do next? I'm afraid there won't be just one way to answer. Sustainable planting, in the final analysis, is a balance achieved through the interplay of multiple factors. Policies must be supportive, technologies must be reliable, and farmers must also be able to see benefits. The terms "water conservation", "precise management" and
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Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 222-230 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 222 Review Article Open Access Integrated Management of Weeds and Pests in Large-Scale Lentil Cultivation Guanli Fu Hainan Institute of Biotechnology, Haikou, 570206, Hainan, China Corresponding email: guanli.fu@hibio.org Field Crop, 2025, Vol.8, No.5 doi: 10.5376/fc.2025.08.0022 Received: 11 Jul., 2025 Accepted: 22 Aug., 2025 Published: 13 Sep., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Fu, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Fu G.L., 2025, Integrated management of weeds and pests in large-scale lentil cultivation, Field Crop, 8(5): 222-230 (doi: 10.5376/fc.2025.08.0022) Abstract Lentils are an important pulse crop that contributes significantly to global food security and sustainable agriculture, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. However, large-scale lentil production continues to face challenges from weeds and insect pests, threatening yield and profitability. This study provides an overview of the major weed species (such as Chenopodium album, Phalaris minor, and Convolvulus arvensis) and insect pests (including Helicoverpa armigera, aphids, and cutworms) affecting lentil fields in key growing regions of India, Canada, and Australia. The adverse effects of these biotic stresses on crop growth, development, and economic performance are explored. The concepts and principles of integrated weed and pest management (IWPM) are discussed, highlighting the ecological and economic benefits of combining cultural, biological, and chemical strategies. Promising technologies are highlighted, including remote sensing, artificial intelligence-based decision support systems, and the development of resistant varieties through molecular breeding. A case study from central India demonstrates the successful implementation of integrated weed and pest management (IWPM), which has increased yields, reduced pesticide use, and generated economic benefits for farmers. This study highlights the importance of site-specific integrated weed and pest management programs, supportive policy frameworks, and capacity-building initiatives to promote sustainable lentil production globally. Keywords Integrated weed and pest management; Lentil cultivation; Biological control; Sustainable agriculture; Crop protection strategies 1 Introduction In many developing countries, animal protein is outrageously expensive, yet lentils have become an important "role" in feeding people. This kind of bean is not only affordable but also nutritious-especially with a high protein content, it is often used as the main source of protein. Moreover, it can also help the soil "recharge" because it can fix nitrogen, which is simply a blessing in crop rotation in farmland. Lentils are widely grown in places like Asia, North America, Australia and Europe. Despite its unremarkable appearance, it can make a significant contribution to food security-especially in areas with insufficient meat supply, its role should not be underestimated (Ahmed et al., 2021). But things weren't that ideal either. Although lentils are easy to grow, they can cause big trouble when they encounter weeds and pests. In the early stage of growth, it develops slowly and has a relatively loose plant shape. It cannot compete with weeds for resources, especially nutrients, water and light. If weeds are not controlled, the yield loss is not just a little high-sometimes it can even drop by 60% to 70% (Alba et al., 2020). Moreover, weeds are prone to attracting insects and diseases, which is like adding insult to injury. Old problems like root rot and fusarium wilt always revolve around lentils. In some places, once the diseases break out, the yield can be cut in half (Tripathi, 2016). There aren't many chemical agents available for weeding lentils. When it comes to drug resistance, it's really hard to deal with. Management can easily get bogged down if not handled with care, especially in large-scale planting systems where complexity rises sharply (Pala, 2019). What this study aims to do is not to repeat how serious the problem is, but to examine the existing "combination of measures"-from farming methods, mechanical means to chemical and biological control-which combination is the most reliable, capable of effectively controlling weeds and pests, stabilizing yields, while also taking into account environmental protection and economic benefits. We will also sort out what blind spots still exist in the current practice and where future research can focus. After all, planting a lot does not necessarily mean good management.
Field Crop 2025, Vol.8, No.5, 222-230 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 223 2 Major Weeds and Pests in Lentil Cultivation 2.1 Common weed species affecting lentils The newly sown lentils grow slowly, with sparse leaves and a very empty ground. Once the weeds sprout, they can easily gain the upper hand. Especially in the early stage, lentils have almost no resistance ability. Weeds like quinoa (Chenopodium album), Phalaris minor, Convolvulus arvensis, Avena sterilis, Glebionis coronaria are frequent visitors in many planting areas. Clearing them is time-consuming and affects the harvest. It has been tallied that more than twenty different kinds of weeds can sprout in the lentil field-no small number. The risk of output loss is not low either. Once not well controlled, a loss of more than 60% is not an exaggeration (Tariq et al., 2022; Rhioui et al., 2023). Of course, there are solutions. Manual weeding, mulching with plastic film, and herbicides are basically the common choices at present. However, the effectiveness and feasibility of each method still depend on local conditions and the tolerance of the lentils themselves (Sharma et al., 2018; Shivani et al., 2025). 2.2 Major insect pests in lentil fields Lentils are not only afraid of weeds, but also have a lot of insects. Some insects are messing around in the fields, while others are causing trouble during the storage stage. Cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum, Aphis craccivora) (Figure 1), cutworms (Amathes cnigrum), leaf weevils (Sitona spp.), tarnished plant bug (Lygus spp.), seed beetles (Bruchus lentis, Bruchus ervi). They almost cover the entire process of lentils' growth and storage. The Acyrthosiphon pisumis particularly troublesome. It not only absorbs SAP and harms seedlings but also may spread viruses. Once it breaks out, the entire yield may be ruined (Das et al., 2022; Zafeiriou et al., 2022). In addition, insects like the bean pod borer will specifically target developing seeds, while cutworms prefer to gnaw on young seedlings. The seed beetles do not show up until the lentils are collected, but it also poses a considerable threat to storage safety (Saeidi and Mirfakhraie, 2017; Bidar et al., 2021; Ebadi et al., 2025). 2.3 Region-specific weed and pest threats in key lentil-growing countries The trouble varies depending on where the lentils are grown. For instance, in India, weeds like quinoa and horseflies are the number one enemies. Cotton bollworms and aphids are always present, and cutworms also come to visit from time to time. What is more troublesome is that there is another parasitic weed called "Liudang", which has become a major concern in some areas (Mbasani-Mansi et al., 2019; En-Nahli et al., 2023). The situation in Canada is slightly different. The most annoying problem is the pea aphid. A specific economic threshold has been established locally to determine whether control is needed. As for the problem of weeds, the local climate and farming systems have also made the species more complex (Yang et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2023). In Australia, the combination of insects and grass is largely similar, but they also have to deal with drug-resistant weeds and more adaptable pests, making the difficulty level even higher. 3 Effects of Weeds and Pests on Lentil Growth and Yield 3.1 Competition with weeds for water, nutrients, and light The lentil, as a crop, grew slowly and short in its early stage, and its leaves couldn't cover the ground, which naturally put it at a disadvantage. Once the weeds sprout, water, nutrients and sunlight all have to be snatched. How could the lentils withstand it? The result was quite obvious-it did not grow tall, had few branches, and the pods shrank. Eventually, the seed yield declined (Sirisha et al., 2020; Birla et al., 2023). In fact, many studies have long pointed out that if weeds are not removed in time, the yield may drop by a quarter to 80%, especially for those plots that have never been weeded from beginning to end, the losses are the most severe. Of course, there are solutions available, such as manual weeding, spraying pesticides, or a combination of these, all of which can improve growth and output overall (Kumari et al., 2022). 3.2 Damage by pests during seedling, flowering, and podding stages Cutworms like to bully the newly emerged tender seedlings. Each bite is accurate. With fewer seedlings, the yield naturally won't increase later. When the flowers bloom and pods form, aphids and pod bores take over. These two not only eat plants but also do not spare the developing seeds, and may even bring germs to cause trouble (Tosti et
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