Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.6, 308-316 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 312 Figure 2 Breeding of a green super wheat variety through CRISPR/Cas-mediated gene editing and other breeding technologies (Adopted from Li et al., 2021) Image caption: (A) Genome sequencing. Wheat genome and pan-genome sequencing provide basic information for designing an sgRNA target and the evaluation of offtarget effects in wheat genome editing. (B) GWAS analysis. GWAS enables the association of specific genes, SNPs, or markers on a chromosome with a specific trait. (C) A CRISPR/Cas-mediated multiplex system for multiple gene knockouts (KOs). (D) CRISPR/Cas-mediated HDR remains to be investigated as a means to improve HDR efficiency in wheat. (E) Development of a module for simultaneous HDR and/or base editing (BE) and knockout would greatly facilitate the translational breeding process for pyramiding favorable alleles in an elite wheat variety in a shorter time. (F) Development of diverse genotype-independent strategies. Genotype-independent strategies enable transformation of recalcitrant wheat varieties, thus facilitating the use of genome editing in diverse elite wheat germplasm. (G) Gene stacking by synthetic biology. Synthetic biology enables the accumulation of multiple transgenes of interest in the same plant genome to stack beneficial traits or generate a novel trait. (H) Speed breeding. Speed breeding enables a shortened generation time for seed harvesting in wheat. KO, knockout; BE, base editing; HDR, homologydirected repair (Adopted from Li et al., 2021) 6 Regulatory Framework and Global Standards for Wheat Food Safety 6.1 International standards and guidelines The codex alimentarius commission, established by the food and agriculture organization (FAO) and the world health organization (WHO), plays a pivotal role in setting international food safety standards. Since its inception in 1963, the Commission has developed numerous standards, guidelines, and codes of practice to enhance food safety and nutrition globally. These standards cover a wide range of topics, including biotechnology, pesticides, pathogens, additives, and contaminants, and are designed to protect consumer health and ensure fair trade practices. The codex standards are recognized as international benchmarks, particularly following the world trade organization's (WTO) agreement on the application of sanitary and phytosanitary measures, which encourages member countries to harmonize their national regulations with codex standards (Tritscher et al., 2013; Wearne et al., 2024). 6.2 National policies on pesticide residue limits and heavy metals National policies on pesticide residue limits are often aligned with the codex alimentarius standards, which are based on evaluations by the Joint FAO/WHO meeting on pesticide residues (JMPR). The codex committee on pesticide residues develops maximum residue limits (MRLs) to ensure consumer safety and facilitate international trade (Ambrus and Yang, 2016). These MRLs are crucial for maintaining food safety and are harmonized internationally to prevent trade barriers. However, the implementation and enforcement of these limits can vary by country, reflecting different national priorities and capacities.
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