Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.6, 298-307 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 301 water use efficiency (Kothari et al., 2019). In the U.S. Central High Plains, the AquaCrop model identified efficient irrigation scheduling strategies, recommending a 10-day irrigation interval combined with pre-season irrigation to field capacity for optimal forage sorghum yield (Fazel et al., 2023). Additionally, a study in Iran compared drip and furrow irrigation methods, finding that drip irrigation, particularly under moderate water deficit conditions, improved both yield and water use efficiency (Ghalkhani et al., 2023). Another study in Heilongjiang Province, China, highlighted the importance of balancing irrigation and nitrogen rates to optimize growth and minimize soil nitrate accumulation, recommending a soil moisture limit of 70% field capacity and a nitrogen rate of 150 kg/ha (Ghalkhani et al., 2023). 5 Integrated Pest and Disease Management 5.1 Common pests and diseases Sorghum is susceptible to a wide range of pests and diseases that can significantly impact its yield and quality. Key insect pests include the sorghum shoot fly (Atherigona soccata), stem borers (such as Chilo partellus and Busseola fusca), armyworms (Mythimna separata and Spodoptera spp.), aphids (Melanaphis sacchari), and head caterpillars (Helicoverpa armigera) (Figure 2) (Okosun et al., 2021). These pests attack various parts of the plant, from the roots to the grain, and can cause substantial damage if not managed effectively. Diseases affecting sorghum include fungal infections, such as anthracnose and grain mold, which thrive in humid conditions and can lead to significant crop losses. Figure 2 (A) Small colony of aphids on sorghum, (B) Corn leaf aphid and sugarcane aphids on sorghum (Photo: J. Scott Armstrong), (C) Adult sugarcane aphid adults in winged and wingless forms (Photo: P. Porter) (Adopted from Okosun et al., 2021) 5.2 Biological and chemical controls Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for sorghum involve a combination of biological and chemical controls. Biological control methods include the use of natural predators and parasitoids to manage pest populations. For instance, conservation practices that protect natural enemies at the landscape level are crucial for long-term pest management (Okosun et al., 2021). Chemical controls involve the application of pesticides, which can be chemical, botanical, or microbial in nature. However, the use of chemical pesticides should be carefully managed to avoid resistance development and environmental harm. An integrated approach that combines these methods is recommended to effectively control pest populations while minimizing negative impacts on the ecosystem (Okosun et al., 2021). 5.3 Breeding and genetic resistance Breeding for pest and disease resistance is a critical component of sorghum cultivation. Host-plant resistance has been developed for several major pests, including the sorghum midge, greenbug, and aphids. Breeding programs
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