Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.5, 270-277 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 275 refuges has successfully delayed resistance in cotton bollworm and pink bollworm. These strategies should be adapted and enforced more rigorously in regions where resistance is emerging rapidly. 7.2 Importance of stakeholder collaboration in resistance management Effective resistance management requires the collaboration of multiple stakeholders, including farmers, researchers, industry representatives, and government regulators. The success of Bt cotton in Australia, for instance, can be attributed to broad stakeholder support and a strong implementation program that includes auditing and enforced remediation of deviations from the mandated resistance management plan (Knight et al., 2021). Similarly, in the United States, coordinated efforts between farmers and government agencies have been crucial in managing resistance. A shared understanding of resistance risks among all stakeholders is essential for effective governance. This includes regular communication and education to ensure that all parties are aware of the importance of compliance with resistance management strategies. In Brazil, India, and the United States, strong coordination between actors and direct linkages between the group that appraises resistance risks and growers have enhanced the prospects for effective governance (Carrière et al., 2019). 7.3 Long-term monitoring and policy recommendations Long-term monitoring of resistance allele frequencies in pest populations is critical for the early detection of resistance and the timely implementation of remedial actions. Continuous monitoring has been a cornerstone of the successful resistance management plan in Australia, where no detectable changes in resistance allele frequency have been observed in field populations of Helicoverpa species. Similarly, in China, long-term field monitoring has shown no failures in lepidopteran pest control, indicating the success of their resistance management strategies (Quan and Wu, 2023). Policy recommendations should focus on mandating the use of refuges, both structured and natural, and ensuring compliance through regular audits and penalties for non-compliance. Additionally, policies should encourage the adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) practices that reduce reliance on Bt crops alone. For instance, in India, integrated pest management strategies that include shortening the cotton season and destroying crop residues are essential for managing pink bollworm resistance (Tabashnik and Carrière, 2019). Acknowledgments We thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Arends B., Reisig D., Gundry S., Huseth A., Reay-Jones F., Greene J., and Kennedy G., 2021, Effectiveness of the natural resistance management refuge for Bt-cotton is dominated by local abundance of soybean and maize, Scientific Reports, 11(1): 17601. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97123-8 Bravo A., Likitvivatanavong S., Gill S., and Soberón M., 2011, Bacillus thuringiensis: a story of a successful bioinsecticide, Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 41(7): 423-431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibmb.2011.02.006 Carrière Y., Brown Z., Downes S., Gujar G., Epstein G., Omoto C., Storer N., Mota-Sánchez D., Jørgensen P., and Carroll S., 2019, Governing evolution: a socioecological comparison of resistance management for insecticidal transgenic Bt crops among four countries, Ambio, 49: 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01167-0 Fabrick J., Li X., Carrière Y., and Tabashnik B., 2023, Molecular genetic basis of lab-and field-selected Bt resistance in pink bollworm, Insects, 14(2): 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14020201 Fabrick J., Ponnuraj J., Singh A., Tanwar R., Unnithan G., Yelich A., Li X., Carrière Y., and Tabashnik B., 2014, Alternative splicing and highly variable cadherin transcripts associated with field-evolved resistance of pink bollworm to Bt cotton in India, PLoS One, 9(5): e97900. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097900 Gassmann A., and Reisig D., 2022, Management of insect pests with Bt crops in the United States, Annual Review of Entomology, 68(1): 31-49. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120220-105502
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