Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.5, 252-260 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 254 Furthermore, epigenomic studies have uncovered variations in chromatin modifications and DNA methylation patterns among different Lupinus species, providing insights into their evolutionary processes and gene expression regulation (Susek et al., 2017). These findings underscore the importance of genomic and epigenomic diversity in the adaptation and evolution of Lupinus species, offering valuable resources for crop improvement and breeding programs. The principal component analysis (PCA) depicted provides insights into the genetic diversity and performance of Lupinus mutabilis accessions across different environments. The distribution of accessions in relation to traits like seed yield, biomass, and pod formation highlights the variability in response to specific environments, such as Ecuador, Portugal, and northern Europe. Accessions with higher biomass yields in European trials are marked in red, demonstrating their potential for breeding programs aimed at improving yield under European conditions. This analysis helps in identifying traits and genotypes that are well-suited for specific climates and farming systems. 3 Comparative Genomics inLupinus 3.1 Methods used in comparative genomics for Lupinus Comparative genomics in Lupinus species has employed a variety of advanced techniques to elucidate genetic differences and similarities. Key methods include genome-wide association studies (GWAS), which have been used to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with important agronomic traits in Lupinus mutabilis. Whole-genome sequencing and pan-genome assembly have also been pivotal, as demonstrated by the creation of a chromosome-length reference genome for narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) and the comparison with white lupin (Lupinus albus). Additionally, epigenomic studies using immunostaining of methylated histone H3 and DNA methylation, as well as whole-genome bisulfite sequencing, have provided insights into the epigenetic landscape of various Lupinus species (Susek et al., 2017). Transcriptome sequencing and the development of expressed sequence tag (EST) libraries have further facilitated comparative studies and marker development (Parra-González et al., 2012). 3.2 Key genomic features identified in different Lupinus species Several key genomic features have been identified across different Lupinus species. In Lupinus angustifolius, the discovery of natural mutations conferring vernalization independence, such as the Ku and Jul alleles, has been significant for understanding flowering time regulation (Figure 2) (Rychel-Bielska et al., 2020). The genome of L. angustifolius also revealed the absence of essential mycorrhizal-associated genes, which is unique among legumes. In Lupinus luteus, comparative mapping has highlighted syntenic regions with major orthologous genes controlling anthracnose resistance and flowering time, suggesting the presence of orthologous genes for these traits in the L. luteus genome. For Lupinus mutabilis, genetic and genomic diversity studies have identified significant intra-specific variability, which is crucial for breeding and conservation programs (Guilengue et al., 2019). Additionally, genome-wide association studies in L. mutabilis have pinpointed QTLs linked to vegetative yield, plant height, pods number, and flowering time (Gulisano et al., 2023). 3.3 Implications of genetic variations for crop improvement The genetic variations identified in Lupinus species have profound implications for crop improvement. The identification of vernalization-independent alleles in L. angustifolius can lead to the development of early-flowering varieties, which are advantageous for different climatic conditions. The absence of mycorrhizal-associated genes in L. angustifolius suggests a unique adaptation mechanism that could be exploited for breeding programs aimed at enhancing nutrient uptake efficiency (Garg et al., 2022). The syntenic regions identified in L. luteus for anthracnose resistance and flowering time can be targeted for marker-assisted selection to develop disease-resistant and early-flowering cultivars (Lichtin et al., 2020). The genetic diversity observed in L. mutabilis provides a rich resource for selecting high-yielding and well-adapted varieties for European climates, thereby expanding its cultivation beyond its native Andean region (Gulisano et al., 2022). Overall, these genetic insights facilitate the development of improved Lupinus varieties with enhanced yield, disease resistance, and adaptability to diverse environmental conditions.
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