Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.5, 252-260 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 253 species such as Lupinus angustifolius (narrow-leafed lupin), Lupinus albus (white lupin), and Lupinus mutabilis (Andean lupin) being of significant agricultural importance. These species are valued not only for their nutritional benefits but also for their role in sustainable farming practices, such as nitrogen fixation and soil improvement (Guilengue et al., 2019; Msaddak et al., 2023). 2.2 Genetic diversity and its role in adaptation Genetic diversity within Lupinus species plays a crucial role in their ability to adapt to different environmental conditions. For instance, Lupinus mutabilis exhibits significant genetic and phenotypic variability, which is essential for its adaptation to Mediterranean climates and other regions outside its native Andean environment (Figure 1) (Gulisano et al., 2022). Similarly, the genetic diversity observed in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) has been pivotal in its domestication and adaptation to various photoperiods and vernalization requirements (Taylor et al., 2018; Rychel-Bielska et al., 2020). The presence of diverse genetic traits, such as flowering time and yield components, enables the selection of accessions suited to specific environments, thereby enhancing crop performance and resilience (Gulisano et al., 2023). Figure 1 Principal component analysis of L. mutabilis collection, including 201 lines from the INIAP gene bank (Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, unknown, and Belarus), Andino, and 24 lines from breeding programs in Europe (Germany and Portugal). Each biplot shows the PCA scores of the explanatory variables (as vectors) and individuals (as points) separately for each of the environments tested: (A) Ecuador, (B) Portugal, (C) NL-Sc and (D) NL-Wi. Individuals on the same side as a given variable should be interpreted as having a high contribution to it. The color of the explanatory variables (vectors) shows the strength of their contribution to each PC. The five most high-yielding genotypes for each location are indicated on the graph with a black label. The accessions with the higher biomass yield in European trials are indicated in red (Adopted from Gulisano et al., 2022) 2.3 Comparative genomics: current research and findings Recent advances in comparative genomics have provided deeper insights into the genomic diversity and evolutionary history of Lupinus species. The development of a chromosome-length reference genome and pan-genome assembly for narrow-leafed lupin has revealed significant genomic variations, including the absence of essential mycorrhizal-associated genes and the presence of key alkaloid regulatory genes (Garg et al., 2022). Comparative studies between Lupinus species and other legumes have highlighted unique genomic features, such as the loss of mycorrhiza-specific genes in narrow-leafed lupin, which distinguishes it from other legumes (Hane et al., 2016).
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