Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.4, 232-242 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 236 widespread adoption despite the technique's benefits (Ishfaq et al., 2020). Additionally, the high fixed costs associated with AWD can deter farmers, particularly small-scale ones, from adopting this water-saving technology (Suwanmaneepong et al., 2023). In the Philippines, the dominant focus on technology transfer without considering local contextual factors has also limited the impact of AWD (Enriquez et al., 2021). Furthermore, the perception of AWD as a risky practice, especially in terms of crop failure, remains a significant barrier to its adoption (Suwanmaneepong et al., 2023). 5.2 Technical and logistical challenges Implementing AWD effectively requires precise control over water levels, which can be technically challenging. Incomplete AWD, where water levels are not managed correctly, can lead to increased emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O) and reduced rice yields (Sriphirom et al., 2019). The variability in soil conditions, irrigation timing, and environmental factors can also affect the success of AWD, making it less predictable and harder to manage compared to continuous flooding (CF) (Subedi and Poudel, 2021). Additionally, the need for regular monitoring and adjustments to water levels can be labor-intensive and require technical knowledge that some farmers may lack (Samoy-Pascual et al., 2021). 5.3 Regional variations and climatic factors The effectiveness of AWD can vary significantly based on regional and climatic conditions. For instance, in regions with frequent rainfall, such as during the wet season in Thailand, incomplete AWD can occur, leading to suboptimal results (Sriphirom et al., 2019). In contrast, during the dry season, complete AWD has been shown to be more effective in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and saving water (Sriphirom et al., 2019). The hydrological impact of AWD also varies, with some regions experiencing enhanced streamflow and increased water availability, while others may face challenges due to reduced precipitation and water stress (Schneider et al., 2019). These regional and climatic variations necessitate tailored approaches to AWD implementation to ensure its effectiveness. 5.4 Socio-economic constraints Socio-economic factors play a crucial role in the adoption and success of AWD. Farmers' understanding of the safe and proper application of AWD, along with the availability of crop insurance to mitigate risks, is essential for encouraging adoption (Suwanmaneepong et al., 2023). Economic viability is another critical factor; while AWD can be economically beneficial, the initial costs and the need for technical and financial support can be prohibitive for some farmers (Gharsallah et al., 2023). In regions like northern Italy, farmers have expressed willingness to adopt AWD but require substantial support to do so (Gharsallah et al., 2023). Additionally, the social dynamics within farming communities, such as the influence of irrigators' associations and enforced rotational irrigation schedules, can significantly impact the adoption of AWD (Samoy-Pascual et al., 2021). By addressing these challenges and limitations, AWD can be more effectively scaled and implemented, contributing to sustainable rice cultivation and water management. 6 Case Study 6.1 Overview of the selected region/field The selected region for this case study is the Mekong Delta in Vietnam, a critical area for rice production that faces significant challenges due to reduced rainfall and water stress. The livelihoods of millions of rice farmers in this region are increasingly vulnerable, necessitating the adoption of water-saving practices to sustain rice production and enhance resilience to climatic changes (Figure 2) (Pham et al., 2021). Additionally, the Center of Portugal was also considered, where traditional continuous flooding methods have been predominant, leading to high water demand and environmental issues such as pollution and methane emissions (Gonçalves et al., 2022). Pham et al. (2021) illustrates a pilot study conducted from September 2017 to August 2019 in Vietnam's Mekong Delta, covering Can Tho, Tra Vinh, and An Giang provinces. This pilot involved 82 farmers and one farm enterprise, exploring the implementation of IoT-based Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) techniques across diverse environmental conditions. The three distinct locations provided a broad perspective on the benefits and
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