Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.3, 182-190 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 186 2021). Similarly, treatments with tefluthrin and entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) led to a significant reduction in WCR beetle emergence and increased maize plant weights (Modic et al., 2020). In another study, the application of soil insecticides to non-Bt maize and Cry3Bb1 maize reduced adult emergence and root injury, further contributing to yield improvements (Shrestha et al., 2018). 5.2 Influence on crop quality The quality of maize crops is also positively influenced by the use of soil insecticides. The reduction in root damage and plant lodging due to effective WCR control contributes to healthier and more robust plants. For example, the combined application of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Pseudomonas bacteria, and entomopathogenic nematodes not only reduced root damage but also enhanced grain yield in treated plots (Jaffuel et al., 2019). Additionally, crop rotation strategies without insecticide use have been effective in maintaining WCR populations below damage thresholds, thereby preserving crop quality (Figure 3) (Furlan et al., 2022). Figure 3 Effects of structural rotation (winter wheat/maize/soybean) on WCR population levels over the years (Adopted from Furlan et al., 2022) Image caption: Numbers of WCR adults/trap/day (total sum at six weeks) in two different scenarios are shown-the first with a high percentage of continuous maize (blue lines and symbols = CM1, CM2) in Treviso province and the second based on structural rotation (red lines and symbols = SR1, SR2) at Vallevecchia pilot farm in Venice province (2016–2020), both in north-eastern Italy. Legend: CM1 = high presence of continuous maize with traps in continuous maize fields (Treviso); CM2 = high presence of continuous maize with traps in rotated maize fields (Treviso); SR1=extensive structural crop rotation with traps in continuous maize fields (Vallevecchia, Venice); SR2 = extensive structural crop rotation with traps in first-year maize (Vallevecchia, Venice). Numbers are two-point moving averages (Adopted from Furlan et al., 2022) 5.3 Economic benefits The economic benefits of using soil insecticides for WCR management are substantial. By reducing yield losses and improving crop quality, farmers can achieve higher marketable yields and better returns on investment. The use of soil insecticides as part of an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy can also mitigate the evolution of resistance in WCR populations, ensuring the long-term efficacy of control measures and reducing the need for more expensive and potentially harmful interventions (Souza et al., 2019; Meinke et al., 2021). Furthermore, sustainable biological control options, such as the use of entomopathogenic nematodes, offer cost-effective alternatives to chemical insecticides, providing economic benefits while minimizing environmental impact (Modic et al., 2020; Furlan et al., 2022). 6 Environmental and Non-Target Effects 6.1 Soil health and microbial communities The application of soil insecticides to control the western corn rootworm (WCR) can have significant impacts on soil health and microbial communities. Research has shown that the use of chemical insecticides, such as pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and organophosphates, can alter the composition and function of soil microbial communities, potentially disrupting nutrient cycling and soil fertility (Souza et al., 2019; Ferracini et al., 2021).
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