Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.3, 145-157 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 154 management strategies. For example, monitoring the carbon footprint and water usage of various rice cultivation systems can provide valuable data for improving practices and reducing environmental impacts (Firouzi et al., 2018; Alphonso and Thirumani, 2023). Additionally, tracking the use and effects of pesticides and fertilizers can help mitigate their negative impacts on human health and freshwater ecosystems (Motevali et al., 2019; Toolkiattiwong et al., 2023). By addressing these future directions, researchers can move towards more sustainable and environmentally friendly rice cultivation systems that ensure food security while protecting our natural resources. 9 Concluding Remarks This comparative analysis of different rice cultivation systems has highlighted significant variations in environmental impacts across various methods. The study found that terraced rice cultivation in Northern Thailand exhibited the highest carbon footprint (CF) intensity, while upland rice had the lowest. Similarly, lowland rice fields had the highest water footprint (WF) and the most significant human health and freshwater ecotoxicity impacts. In China, the rice-crayfish rotation system showed higher environmental pressure and lower sustainability compared to rice-wheat and rice-fallow rotations. In Iran, the rice ratooning agro-system was found to be more environmentally beneficial than single cropping, particularly in terms of fossil fuel depletion and global warming. Ecological rice-cropping systems, such as rice-duck and rice-crayfish, were effective in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, although they increased N2O emissions. The environmental impact of rice production was also influenced by the type of rice cultivar and the use of nitrogen fertilizers, with higher N rates leading to increased acidification and terrestrial eutrophication. Sustainable rice cultivation is crucial for mitigating the adverse environmental impacts associated with traditional farming practices. The findings underscore the need for adopting integrated and ecological rice-cropping systems that balance productivity with environmental sustainability. For instance, the rice-duck system has been identified as a promising approach for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing soil health. Similarly, the integration of rice and livestock systems, such as the rice-beef-biogas system in Vietnam, has shown potential in reducing environmental impacts while increasing food production. The use of transgenic rice cultivars can also contribute to sustainability by reducing the need for chemical inputs and associated environmental pollutants. These sustainable practices not only help in conserving natural resources but also ensure long-term food security and farmer livelihoods. In conclusion, the comparative analysis of different rice cultivation systems reveals that sustainable practices can significantly reduce environmental impacts. Policymakers and farmers should prioritize the adoption of integrated and ecological rice-cropping systems to achieve environmental sustainability. Specific recommendations include: Promoting Ecological Systems: Encourage the use of ecological rice-cropping systems like rice-duck and rice-crayfish, which have demonstrated lower greenhouse gas emissions and better soil health. Integrated Farming Practices: Implement integrated crop-livestock systems, such as the rice-beef-biogas system, to optimize resource use and reduce environmental impacts. Use of Transgenic Cultivars: Support the cultivation of transgenic rice varieties to minimize the need for chemical inputs and reduce environmental pollution. Efficient Water and Fertilizer Management: Develop and promote efficient water and fertilizer management practices to reduce the water footprint and mitigate the adverse effects of nitrogen fertilizers. Policy and Education: Formulate policies and educational programs to raise awareness among farmers about sustainable practices and provide incentives for adopting advanced farming techniques. By implementing these recommendations, it is possible to achieve a more sustainable and environmentally friendly rice cultivation system that meets the growing food demands while preserving the ecosystem. Acknowledgments Authors extend sincere thanks to two anonymous peer reviewers for their thorough review of this study and for their valuable suggestions for improvement.
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