Field Crop 2024, Vol.7, No.2, 45-57 http://cropscipublisher.com/index.php/fc 48 3.3 Enhanced resistance to pests and diseases GM maize varieties have been engineered to enhance resistance to pests and diseases, providing agronomic benefits and reducing crop losses. For instance, Bt maize has been effective in controlling the European corn borer, leading to areawide suppression of this pest and economic benefits for both Bt and non-Bt maize growers (Hutchison et al., 2010). In Mexico, GM insect-resistant maize hybrids have shown improved grain yield and resistance to target insect pests, offering an alternative for farmers to protect their crops from insect damage (Díaz et al., 2016). The enhanced resistance conferred by GM maize not only reduces the need for chemical pesticides but also contributes to more stable and higher yields, supporting sustainable agricultural practices. 4 Economic Impacts 4.1 Farmer income and profitability The adoption of genetically modified (GM) maize has had a significant positive impact on farmer income and profitability. Studies have shown that GM technology adoption has increased farmer profits by 68% on average, with higher gains observed in developing countries compared to developed ones (Klümper and Qaim, 2014). Over the period from 1996 to 2020, the cumulative farm income gains from GM crop technology amounted to $261.3 billion, with an average farm income gain of about $112 per hectare (Brookes, 2022). These gains are attributed to both yield improvements and cost savings, with 72% of the benefits derived from yield and production gains and the remaining 28% from cost savings (Brookes and Barfoot, 2013; Brookes and Barfoot, 2015; Brookes and Barfoot, 2017; Brookes and Barfoot, 2018; Brookes and Barfoot, 2020; Brookes, 2022). 4.2 Cost-benefit analysis of GM maize adoption A cost-benefit analysis of GM maize adoption reveals substantial economic benefits for farmers. For each extra dollar invested in GM crop seeds, farmers gained an average of $3.76 in extra income, with higher returns observed in developing countries ($5.22) compared to developed countries ($3.00) (Brookes, 2022). The technology has also led to significant reductions in chemical pesticide use, which decreased by 37% on average, contributing to cost savings and environmental benefits (Klümper and Qaim, 2014). Additionally, the adoption of GM maize has mitigated the adverse effects of maize-maize rotation on yield, further enhancing its economic viability (Chavas et al., 2014). 4.3 Market dynamics and trade The widespread adoption of GM maize has influenced market dynamics and trade patterns. The increased production levels of GM maize have contributed to global food security by adding significant quantities to the global maize supply. For instance, since the mid-1990s, GM technology has added 595 million tonnes to the global production of maize (Brookes, 2022). This increased supply has implications for global trade, as countries with high adoption rates of GM maize can potentially export surplus production, thereby influencing global maize prices and trade flows. The economic benefits of GM maize adoption are shared between farmers in developed and developing countries, with a roughly equal distribution of gains (Brookes and Barfoot, 2013; Brookes and Barfoot, 2015; Brookes and Barfoot, 2017; Brookes and Barfoot, 2018; Brookes and Barfoot, 2020). In summary, the adoption of GM maize has led to substantial economic benefits for farmers, including increased income and profitability, significant cost savings, and enhanced market dynamics and trade. These benefits underscore the potential of GM maize to contribute to sustainable agricultural practices and global food security. 5 Environmental Impacts 5.1 Reduction in chemical pesticide use and environmental benefits The adoption of genetically modified (GM) maize has been shown to significantly reduce the use of chemical pesticides, leading to various environmental benefits. For instance, the use of insect-resistant GM maize in Spain and Portugal has resulted in a 37% reduction in insecticide spraying, which translates to a decrease of 678,000 kg of active ingredient over 21 years. This reduction has also led to a 21% decrease in the environmental impact associated with herbicide and insecticide use, as measured by the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) (Brookes, 2019). Similarly, globally, GM crops have reduced pesticide use by 22.3 million kg of formulated product in the
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