Molecular Soil Biology 2025, Vol.16, No.4, 162-174 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/msb 166 volatilization, thereby increasing the efficiency of N uptake by the plants. Controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs), such as polymeric-coated urea, have also demonstrated significant improvements in NUE. These fertilizers release N gradually, matching the crop's uptake pattern and minimizing environmental losses. For instance, a study found that CRFs increased rice yields by approximately 35% compared to traditional fertilizers, while also enhancing leaf N content and other essential nutrients (Gil-Ortiz et al., 2020) (Figure 3). Figure 3 Comparison of rice growth responses, on the microscale experiment, to the applied CRF and their reductions from CRFr1 to CRFr4, DURAMON®, UREA, and the CONTROL (no fertilizer applied) in the phenological stage of booting (A-D) and at the end of culture (E,F). Treatments from left to right: CRF, CRFr1 (A,E); CONTROL, NSA (B,F); CRFr3, CRFr2 (C,G); DURAMON®, CRFr4 (D,H). Bars correspond to 10 cm (Adopted from Gil-Ortiz et al., 2020) Additionally, site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) tools like Rice Crop Manager and Nutrient Expert have been developed to provide tailored fertilizer recommendations based on local conditions and crop needs. These digital tools help farmers apply the right amount of N at the right time, further improving NUE and reducing environmental impacts (Chivenge et al., 2021). Despite the proven benefits, the adoption of these advanced fertilization techniques remains low, necessitating policy support and extension services to encourage wider use among farmers. 4.2 Water and nitrogen management Effective irrigation practices play a significant role in enhancing NUE in rice cultivation. Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is an irrigation technique that has been shown to improve both water and nitrogen use efficiency. AWD involves periodically allowing the soil to dry before re-irrigating, which reduces water usage and minimizes N losses through denitrification and leaching (Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). Studies have demonstrated that AWD can achieve similar grain yields to continuous flooding while saving 40%~44% of water and increasing water productivity by 68%. Moreover, integrating AWD with optimized N application rates can further enhance NUE. For example, applying 60 kg N ha-1 under AWD conditions resulted in higher partial factor productivity of N compared to higher N rates, indicating more efficient use of applied N (Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). This approach not only reduces the
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