Molecular Soil Biology 2025, Vol.16, No.4, 199-213 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/msb 2 00 most productive cereal globally. The United States, China, and Brazil produce the largest shares (Ranum et al., 2014; Erenstein et al., 2022). In Africa and Latin America, maize remains both a staple food and a key crop for small farmers. 2.2 Common cultivation methods (conventional tillage, conservation agriculture, intercropping, monoculture) Conventional tillage often involves deep plowing and land preparation, which can improve soil permeability. Long-term high-intensity operations often lead to a reduction in organic matter, damage to soil structure, and exacerbation of erosion problems (Ramadhan, 2021). Conservation tillage reduces soil disturbance through no till or reduced tillage, retention of crop residue cover, and implementation of crop rotation (Ramadhan, 2021; Flynn et al., 2024). Intercropping corn with leguminous, potato, and forage crops reduces pest and weed pressure (Khongdee et al., 2022). In Southeast Asia and other regions, it plays a role in preventing soil erosion and maintaining soil fertility. Although long-term monoculture of corn is beneficial for mechanization and high yield, it can easily lead to soil degradation and accumulation of pests and diseases (Erenstein et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022). 2.3 Fertilization and irrigation management Corn cultivation relies heavily on chemical fertilizers (especially nitrogen fertilizers) to meet the high nutrient requirements of crops, but excessive fertilization increases costs and can also lead to soil acidification, nutrient leaching, and environmental pollution (Wang et al., 2022; Feng et al., 2023; Sivamurugan et al., 2025). Optimize fertilization strategies, such as deep application of nitrogen fertilizer, staged fertilization, organic-inorganic combination, and precision fertilization based on crop growth status (Zheng et al., 2023; Marbun, 2024; Patel et al., 2024). Global corn cultivation is mainly rain fed, but irrigation is important in arid or semi-arid regions (Sah et al., 2020). Drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and other efficient irrigation technologies are gradually being promoted to improve water use efficiency and crop stress resistance (Sivamurugan et al., 2025). 2.4 Pesticide and herbicide use in corn system Common management measures include seed coating, field spraying of insecticides, fungicides, and various herbicides to control major pests and diseases such as corn borer, aphid, leaf spot disease, rust disease, etc. (Erenstein et al., 2022; Terefe et al., 2023). Long term dependence on chemical control can lead to increased drug resistance, damage to non target organisms, and environmental pollution. In some regions, the excessive use of pesticides and herbicides has also led to a decline in soil microbial diversity and weakened ecosystem service functions (Norris et al., 2016). Integrated pest management (IPM) and biological control are gradually receiving attention. By implementing measures such as reasonable crop rotation, intercropping, selection of disease resistant and insect resistant varieties, optimization of field management, and precise pesticide application, pesticide usage can be effectively reduced and the development of drug resistance can be slowed down (Erenstein et al., 2022; Terefe et al., 2023). 3 Key Indicators of Soil Health 3.1 Physical properties (texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, water holding capacity) The soil texture (proportion of sand, powder, and clay particles) affects the soil's water retention, aeration, and ease of cultivation. Soil with intact aggregate structure can improve erosion resistance and promote water infiltration; Once the structure is damaged, it is prone to compaction, increased surface runoff, and restricted root growth. Bulk density reflects the compactness of soil, and a high value often indicates that the soil is compacted, which is not conducive to root extension and water vapor flow. Porosity is closely related to aeration and water retention capacity, and higher porosity contributes to microbial activity and root respiration (Es and Karlen, 2019; Lu et al., 2020; Bagnall et al., 2023). Conservation tillage, planting cover crops, and increasing organic matter input can enhance soil aggregate stability and improve water retention performance (Es and Karlen, 2019; Liptzin et al., 2022; Bagnall et al., 2023). Some
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