Molecular Soil Biology 2025, Vol.16, No.3, 126-136 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/msb 131 richer variety, indicating that the soil ecology is more active (Oueda et al., 2025). Biofertilizers such as rhizobia and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can also help sorghum absorb more nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, while improving its water utilization efficiency and drought resistance (Kamali and Mehraban, 2020; Kareem and Hamed, 2024). Figure 2 Relationships between all measured characteristics of sorghum grown in saline soils. DW: dry weight; N: aerial N accumulation; P: aerial P accumulation; K: aerial K accumulation. *: significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 (Adopted from Guo et al., 2025) 7.2 Long-term yield stability and environmental benefits The long-term use of organic fertilizers and biofertilizers is conducive to the stability of sorghum yields and can also increase year by year. Many studies have shown that whether used alone or with chemical fertilizers, these fertilizers can make sorghum grow better, whether it is biomass, grain yield or quality indicators, there are significant improvements. Moreover, the yield is relatively stable in harsh environments such as drought or saline-alkali land (Kamali and Mehraban, 2020; Kareem and Hamed, 2024; Xue et al., 2024). They can also reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers, reduce pollution, improve soil structure, make the land more fertile, and the ecological environment healthier (Hassanen and Abotaleb, 2020; Rizvi et al., 2021). Some biofertilizers, such as phosphate bacteria, not only help absorb nutrients, but also inhibit pathogens, so that less pesticides are used (Rizvi et al., 2021). 7.3 Comparison with synthetic options in cost and effectiveness Compared with chemical fertilizers, organic fertilizers and biofertilizers are also competitive in improving sorghum yield and quality. Some experiments have found that when organic fertilizers or biofertilizers are used alone, although the yield may not be as good as full fertilizers, if the two are used together, the amount of chemical fertilizers can be reduced by 25% to 50%, while still achieving similar or even better yields and quality (Akhtar et al., 2020; Hassanen and Abotaleb, 2020). These fertilizers have little pressure on the environment. The longer they are used, the better the soil structure and fertility will be, bringing considerable ecological and economic benefits (Hassanen and Abotaleb, 2020; Rizvi et al., 2021). In some places, people also use resources around them, such as poultry manure and crop straw, to make their own fertilizers, which can also save some costs (Oueda et al., 2025). 8 Yield and Quality Metrics in Response to Fertilization 8.1 Yield components: plant height, panicle length, 1000-grain weight Different fertilization methods can significantly improve sorghum yield performance. For example, using organic
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