Journal of Energy Bioscience 2025, Vol.16, No.4, 193-204 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 199 6.2 Sustainability and smallholder adoption Sorghum has low input and high output, making it an important choice for small-scale farmers to achieve sustainable livelihoods. However, in many places, the proportion of adopting improved varieties and efficient management techniques is not high. The reasons include insufficient credit, difficulty in purchasing seeds, inadequate technical services and difficulty in market access (Tonitto and Ricker-Gilbert, 2016; Mwangi et al., 2020; Dunjana et al., 2022; Onuwa, 2023; Kamara et al., 2025). Research has found that variety information acquisition, distance from the seed market, agricultural credit and technology extension services are important factors affecting the adoption by smallholder farmers (Mwangi et al., 2020; Onuwa, 2023; Kamara et al., 2025). Intercropping, crop diversification, and rational use of fertilizers and organic matter can not only increase yield, but also enhance the risk-resistance capacity and economic stability of the system (Tonitto and Ricker-Gilbert, 2016; Onuwa, 2023). Diversified practices such as crop rotation of leguminous crops can also increase yields and bring higher economic returns (Tonitto and Ricker-Gilbert, 2016). 6.3 Policy and extension support A sound policy and promotion system is of great significance for enhancing the energy efficiency of sorghum and promoting sustainable development. Strengthening policy support, enhancing promotion and service capabilities, and improving market access and credit conditions all contribute to promoting the popularization and industrialization of sorghum technology. Specific measures include: increasing investment in variety research and development and promotion, improving the supply chain of seeds and agricultural supplies, implementing price support and crop insurance, and strengthening farmer training and information services (Dunjana et al., 2022; Onuwa, 2023; Kamara et al., 2025; Khaskheli et al., 2025). Meanwhile, social policies should also focus on groups such as the labor force, gender and youth, and promote inclusive agricultural development, thereby enhancing the overall resilience and sustainability of the sorghum production system (Khaskheli et al., 2025). 7 Case Study: Improving EUE in Sorghum in the Mediterranean Region 7.1 Background The climate in the Mediterranean region is generally dry, with little precipitation and a shortage of water resources. Take Apulia in southeastern Italy as an example. There is an urgent need to develop efficient and sustainable bioenergy crops there. Sorghum bicolor L. Moench has strong drought resistance and high adaptability, and thus is regarded as an ideal crop for the development of bioenergy here (Pietro Garofalo et al., 2025). 7.2 Intervention details This case adopted three irrigation methods: full irrigation, deficit irrigation and regulated deficit irrigation. The regulation of irrigation volume, combined with standard crop coefficients and soil moisture monitoring, has achieved precise water supply. Studies were conducted in 2013, 2014 and 2017 to systematically evaluate sorghum biomass, ethanol production and water use efficiency under different irrigation conditions (Pietro Garofalo et al., 2025). 7.3 Outcomes Under full irrigation conditions, the biomass and ethanol yield of sorghum were the highest, with the biomass ranging from 22 633 to 28 367 kg/ha, and the ethanol yield also increased significantly. However, in terms of water productivity, deficient irrigation performed better, with biomass water productivity reaching 10.93 kg/m³ and ethanol water productivity reaching 3.23 L/m³. This indicates that underirrigation can make better use of limited water resources while ensuring production (Pietro Garofalo et al., 2025). 7.4 Lessons learned and scalability Studies show that moderate deficiency irrigation can not only save water but also improve the energy utilization efficiency of sorghum. This approach is particularly suitable for promotion in the Mediterranean and other semi-arid regions where water resources are tight. Important experiences include: flexibly adjusting irrigation plans based on local climate and soil conditions, and optimizing water management in combination with precise monitoring. This model has strong scalability and can also provide a reference for the utilization of sorghum energy in similar ecological zones worldwide (Pietro Garofalo et al., 2025).
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