Journal of Energy Bioscience 2025, Vol.16, No.4, 193-204 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 195 in leaf angles can alter the utilization efficiency of light in the canopy, thereby increasing yield and EUE (Truong et al., 2015). In addition, traits such as early maturity, high harvest index and high water use efficiency are also considered helpful for drought adaptation and improving EUE, and thus have been included in the comprehensive breeding goals (Zabuloni et al., 2025). Figure 1 Illustration comparing sorghum hybrids with increased terminal senescence under favorable environmental conditions with greater N translocation from leaves to increase yield and grain quality (left) versus stay-green sorghum hybrids grown under resource-poor conditions (right). Sorghum hybrids with efficient translocation of N and increased senescence under less stressful environments would potentially not require an extensive root system (left) (Adopted from Ostmeyer et al., 2022) 3.2 Molecular and genomic tools Methods such as molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS), genome-wide association analysis (GWAS), and genomic selection (GS) have greatly accelerated the improvement speed of high EE-related traits (Maqbool et al., 2001; Massel et al., 2016; Fernandes et al., 2017; Takanashi, 2023). High-throughput phenotypic analysis and next-generation sequencing technologies have also helped researchers better understand complex traits like NUE (Bollam et al., 2021). Combining genomic selection with related traits (such as plant height, leaf Angle, and dry matter accumulation) can improve the accuracy of prediction. Especially "character-assisted GS", the effect is more obvious when obtaining data in the early stage or at low cost (Fernandes et al., 2017). In addition, gene editing technologies such as CRISPR/Cas have been used to improve the stress resistance and nutrient utilization efficiency of sorghum (Nigam et al., 2025). 3.3 Examples from recent breeding programs In recent years, hybrid varieties of energy sorghum have significantly increased biomass and EUE by adjusting phottoid response and extending vegetative growth period (Mullet et al., 2014). In terms of nitrogen utilization efficiency, whole genome sequencing has identified important genes related to nitrogen absorption and utilization, which provides molecular targets for breeding high NUE varieties (Massel et al., 2016). Combined selection of multiple traits and character-assisted genomic selection have demonstrated high consistency and high accuracy in the breeding of high-biomass sorghum (Fernandes et al., 2017). Furthermore, a number of high NUE genotypes have been screened out in different ecological types (for food, feed, and dual-use), and these resources are being used for molecular improvement and promotion of new varieties (Bollam et al., 2021).
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