Journal of Energy Bioscience 2025, Vol.16, No.3, 151-162 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 157 phenotyping can also be combined with molecular markers, genomic selection and other technologies to promote the precise breeding of maize biofuel varieties. High-throughput phenotyping improves screening efficiency and provides rich phenotypic data for genetic analysis and gene localization of complex quantitative traits (Choudhary et al., 2020). 7 Environmental and Agronomic Considerations 7.1 Sustainable development of maize as a biofuel Nowadays, many people are concerned about whether maize as a biofuel is sustainable. If it is cultivated in an intensive way, such as planting two crops a year, it will not occupy more arable land and can increase the production of maize ethanol. In central and western Brazil, farmers often plant a crop of maize after the soybean harvest. In addition, using renewable energy to process it can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase income and job opportunities (Moreira et al., 2020). In Europe, the large-scale use of maize to generate biogas has brought some problems, such as too concentrated sludge, which affects surface and groundwater, and a lot of greenhouse gas emissions (Herrmann, 2013). Maize cultivation may also lead to a decrease in soil organic matter and a decrease in biological species. To make this system more sustainable, it is necessary to arrange crop rotation properly, handle sludge properly, use a systematic approach to evaluate soil carbon flow and emissions, and scientifically analyze changes in land use. 7.2 Conflict between food and fuel Maize can be eaten and used as fuel, so some people worry that using too much maize for fuel will affect food supply and even raise food prices. If double-season planting or crop rotation is adopted, fuel raw materials can actually be increased without affecting food production (Moreira et al., 2020; Costantini and Bacenetti, 2021). For example, in South America, the rotation of beans and maize not only has higher energy output per unit area, but also good economic benefits and little impact on food supply (Costantini and Bacenetti, 2021). The land, climate and economic conditions in different places are different, and one method cannot be applied to all places. The effectiveness of the biofuel system also depends on crop yields, land use and policy support (Nakamya, 2022). 7.3 Issues in soil, water and carbon emissions Some traditional maize varieties can grow well and produce high biomass regardless of how they are fertilized, sprayed or watered (Serrano et al., 2014). If harvested at the right time, not only will the yield be high, but the content of ash, nitrogen, potassium, chlorine, etc. in the straw can also be reduced. Combined with reasonable fertilization and crop rotation, the organic matter in the soil can be maintained and soil degradation can be prevented (Herrmann, 2013; Hasanain et al., 2025). Although maize has a high demand for water, choosing the right variety and managing irrigation well can improve water use efficiency. In terms of carbon emissions, using maize to make ethanol is also effective in energy use and emission reduction, especially when high-yield, low-input planting methods are used, and it is more obvious when processed with renewable energy (Moreira et al., 2020; Nakamya, 2022). However, ethanol processing and planting itself are still large carbon emitters, and carbon footprints must be reduced through technology and management (Nakamya, 2022). 7.4 Intercropping and straw management potential Crop rotation or intercropping patterns such as beans and maize can make better use of land resources and increase energy output and benefits (Costantini and Bacenetti, 2021). By planting a diverse crop structure, not only can the soil be improved, but it can also make the soil more nutritious and reduce pests (Hasanain et al., 2025). Intercropping can also help farmers spread risks and enhance their ability to resist climate change. In terms of straw, if straw is returned to the field and biogas residue is used properly, it can improve soil nutrients, reduce the use of chemical fertilizers, and reduce environmental pollution (Herrmann, 2013; Hasanain et al., 2025). Using no-tillage, conservation tillage or covering with residues can also reduce water evaporation, prevent soil from being washed away, and increase carbon storage in the soil (Hasanain et al., 2025). For compound crops like
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