Journal of Energy Bioscience 2025, Vol.16, No.3, 105-116 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 111 feed livestock, or be made into biochar, biogas and fertilizer through pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion (Gallorini et al., 2023; Toplicean and Datcu, 2024; Suchocki, 2024). This multi-path development approach can greatly improve the economic value and environmental benefits of rapeseed, and also reduce the generation of waste (Sherwood, 2020; Toplicean and Datcu, 2024; Suchocki, 2024). Figure 3 Nitrogen (N) flows through the food system for feed (orange flows) and fertiliser (blue flows). Animal feed (food feed, grassland) is fed to livestock while residual streams are either fed to livestock, composted, or digested. Livestock produce manure which is digested or used as fertiliser on arable land and grassland. Arable land and grassland are also fertilised with compost, digestate, artificial fertiliser and crop residues. N deposition and fixation also contribute to fertilisation. Harvested N includes feed, food and by-products including food losses and waste. Labels refer to vertical grey bars. In this figure GHG emissions from anaerobic digestion are assigned to the energy sector (Adopted from van Selm et al., 2025) 8 Technological and Logistical Challenges 8.1 Feedstock collection and storage Collecting and storing rapeseed biomass is not easy. Because rapeseed is a seasonal crop and can only be harvested for a period of time a year, the supply of raw materials is not very stable. This requires an efficient logistics system to ensure a continuous supply of raw materials (Bui et al., 2023). Biomass is easily damp and deteriorates during storage, which will lead to reduced energy and poor quality. In order to avoid these problems, special transit warehouses and pre-arranged pre-treatment processes are required. There are generally two ways to collect: one is to collect according to demand, and the other is to collect according to supply. In terms of transportation, multiple methods are also needed, such as road and rail, to improve efficiency. 8.2 Pretreatment requirements: technical constraints in lignocellulose processing Before materials such as rapeseed straw are turned into energy, they must be processed first. This step is more complicated because lignocellulose is difficult to decompose. Commonly used methods include heat treatment, mechanical treatment, and biological treatment, but they all have some problems, such as high energy consumption, complex equipment, and high cost (Banerjee, 2022; Tshikovhi and Motaung, 2023). How to break
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