Journal of Energy Bioscience 2024, Vol.15, No.5, 314-325 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 320 7.3 Strategies for minimizing energy losses Minimizing energy losses in EBFCs involves optimizing both the bioanode and biocathode to reduce overpotentials and improve electron transfer efficiency. One effective approach is the use of redox polymers to wire enzymes to the electrode surface, thereby facilitating direct electron transfer. For instance, a membraneless glucose/oxygen biofuel cell utilizing a redox-polymer-modified anode achieved high coulombic efficiency and power output by optimizing the enzyme and polymer composition (Shao et al., 2013). Additionally, the design of efficient enzyme-electrode interfaces, such as the use of mixed operational/storage electrodes, has been shown to reduce energy losses and enhance cell performance (Huang et al., 2019). These strategies are essential for maximizing the efficiency and output of EBFCs. 8 Applications of Enzyme-Catalyzed Biofuel Cells 8.1 Portable power generation Enzyme-catalyzed biofuel cells (EBFCs) have shown significant potential in the realm of portable power generation. Due to their ability to operate under mild conditions such as ambient temperature and near-neutral pH, EBFCs are well-suited for powering portable electronic devices and sensors. The compact and miniaturized nature of these cells, facilitated by the use of enzymes as biocatalysts, makes them ideal for integration into small-scale devices (Barelli et al., 2019; Barelli et al., 2021). Additionally, the low cost and renewability of enzymes contribute to the feasibility of using EBFCs in portable power applications (Barelli et al., 2021). Recent advancements in enzyme immobilization techniques and the use of conductive nanomaterials have further enhanced the performance and stability of EBFCs, making them more viable for practical use in portable power generation (Wen and Eychmüller, 2016; Barelli et al., 2019). 8.2 Medical applications EBFCs have garnered considerable interest in the medical field, particularly for their potential use in implantable and wearable medical devices. The biocompatibility and specificity of enzymes towards their substrates allow for the development of biofuel cells that can operate within the human body, utilizing physiological fluids such as blood glucose as fuel (Barton et al., 2004; Barelli et al., 2019). This makes EBFCs suitable for powering implantable medical devices, such as pacemakers and drug delivery systems, as well as wearable health monitoring devices (Yu and Scott, 2010; Huang et al., 2020). The ability of EBFCs to generate power in vivo under physiological conditions has been demonstrated, highlighting their potential to revolutionize the field of medical implants and biosensors (Barton et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2021). However, challenges such as enzyme stability and power output need to be addressed to fully realize the potential of EBFCs in medical applications (Huang et al., 2020). 8.3 Environmental and waste treatment applications The application of EBFCs extends beyond portable and medical devices to environmental and waste treatment. EBFCs can be employed to generate power from organic substrates found in waste streams, such as sewage and agro-industrial waste, thereby providing a sustainable and eco-friendly energy solution (Barton et al., 2004; Barelli et al., 2019). The specificity of enzymes towards their substrates allows for the efficient conversion of waste materials into electrical energy, contributing to waste management and environmental protection (Barelli et al., 2019). Additionally, the integration of EBFCs with biosensors can facilitate the monitoring and treatment of environmental pollutants, further enhancing their utility in environmental applications (Wen and Eychmüller, 2016; Zhang et al., 2021). The development of EBFCs for environmental and waste treatment applications is still in its early stages, but the potential benefits make it a promising area of research (Barton et al., 2004; Barelli et al., 2019). 9 Challenges and Future Perspectives 9.1 Limitations in current technologies Enzyme-catalyzed biofuel cells (EBCs) have shown significant promise as sustainable energy sources due to their ability to operate under mild conditions and utilize renewable biocatalysts. However, several limitations hinder
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