Journal of Energy Bioscience 2024, Vol.15, No.4, 221-232 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 226 processes, which are now more capable of handling the geographical and seasonal variations in waste feedstock (Gontard et al., 2018). Additionally, thermocatalytic reforming (TCR) has emerged as a novel process for converting agricultural waste into energy and valuable materials, such as syngas, bio-oil, and bio-char, with high environmental and economic sustainability (Moreno et al., 2019). Furthermore, the integration of various conversion pathways into a biomass product and process network has been optimized for economic feasibility, demonstrating high returns on investment for certain waste-to-product pathways (Nicoletti et al., 2019). 6.2 Use of biotechnological approaches to enhance waste conversion Biotechnological approaches have played a crucial role in enhancing the conversion of agricultural waste. Modern biotechnologies now allow for the use of farm animal waste not only as raw materials for organic fertilizers but also for the production of alternative fuels and feed (Gishkaeva and Polonkoeva, 2022). The application of nanomaterials, such as nano zero valent irons (nZVIs) and metal oxide nanoparticles, has been shown to improve the efficiency of biological processes like anaerobic digestion and microbial fuel cells, thereby increasing the quality of the products and minimizing the negative impacts of hazardous materials in the waste (Salehi and Wang, 2022). Additionally, the biorefinery approach, which integrates biomass conversion processes to produce fuels, power, and chemicals, has been proposed to increase the profitability and environmental sustainability of the agricultural sector (Fermoso et al., 2018). 6.3 Advances in process optimization and efficiency improvements Significant strides have been made in optimizing processes and improving the efficiency of agricultural waste conversion. Data-driven nonlinear adaptive robust optimization has been employed to create a biomass product and process network, optimizing the return on investment for various conversion pathways (Nicoletti et al., 2019). This approach has demonstrated the potential for maximizing the utilization of profitable processing pathways. Moreover, the development of multi-criteria decision support tools applicable at early stages of research has been discussed to address the complexity, seasonality, and regionality of agricultural residue management chains (Gontard et al., 2018) (Figure 3). The use of advanced thermochemical liquefaction techniques, including direct and indirect liquefaction, has also been highlighted for their ability to produce biofuels and valuable chemicals from agricultural and forestry wastes, contributing to the circular economy (Song et al., 2020). By leveraging these technological advances and innovations, the conversion of agricultural waste into biomass energy and organic fertilizers can be significantly optimized, promoting sustainability and economic viability in the agricultural sector. Figure 3 Cascading activities around anaerobic digestion (upstream and downstream processes) to valorise agro and food processing waste (Adopted from Gontard et al., 2018)
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