Journal of Energy Bioscience 2024, Vol.15, No.4, 221-232 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 224 cost-effectiveness. The process involves the decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms, which is enhanced by regular aeration and moisture control. Windrow composting is suitable for large-scale operations and can handle a variety of organic wastes, including agricultural residues and municipal solid waste (Lim et al., 2016). 4.1.2 Vermicomposting Vermicomposting utilizes earthworms, particularly species like Eisenia fetida and Perionyx excavatus, to decompose organic waste into nutrient-rich compost. This method is highly efficient in converting organic waste into high-quality organic fertilizer. Earthworms consume the organic matter, and their excreta, known as vermicast, is rich in nutrients and beneficial microorganisms. Vermicomposting not only enhances nutrient content but also improves the physical properties of the compost, making it an excellent soil amendment (Soobhany, 2019; Kaur, 2020; Chatterjee et al., 2021; Huntley and Ansari, 2021). 4.1.3 In-vessel composting In-vessel composting involves the decomposition of organic waste in a controlled, enclosed environment. This method allows for better control of temperature, moisture, and aeration, leading to faster and more efficient composting. In-vessel systems can vary from simple bins to sophisticated automated systems. This technique is particularly useful for processing food waste and other organic materials in urban settings, where space and odor control are significant concerns (Schröder et al., 2021). 4.2 Factors influencing compost quality Several factors influence the quality of compost, including the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio, moisture content, aeration, and the presence of microorganisms. The C/N ratio is crucial for microbial activity; an optimal ratio of around 25-30:1 is recommended for efficient composting. Moisture content should be maintained between 40%-60% to support microbial activity without causing anaerobic conditions. Aeration is essential to maintain aerobic conditions and prevent the production of harmful gases like methane and ammonia. The addition of bulking agents and microbial inoculants can enhance the composting process and improve the final compost quality (Lim et al., 2016; Mupambwa and Mnkeni, 2018; Raza et al., 2020). 4.3 Benefits of using compost as an organic fertilizer Using compost as an organic fertilizer offers numerous benefits for soil health and crop production. Compost improves soil structure, increases water retention, and enhances soil fertility by providing essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. It also introduces beneficial microorganisms that promote plant growth and suppress soil-borne diseases. Additionally, composting organic waste reduces the volume of waste sent to landfills, thereby mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to a more sustainable waste management system (Kaur, 2020; Chatterjee et al., 2021; Niedzialkoski et al., 2021; Schröder et al., 2021). In conclusion, the conversion of agricultural waste into organic fertilizer through various composting techniques not only addresses waste management issues but also provides a sustainable solution for enhancing soil fertility and crop productivity. The integration of windrow composting, vermicomposting, and in-vessel composting, along with the optimization of composting parameters, can lead to the production of high-quality organic fertilizers that support sustainable agricultural practices. 5 Integration of Biomass Energy and Organic Fertilizer Production 5.1 Synergistic approaches for combined energy and fertilizer production The integration of biomass energy and organic fertilizer production leverages the synergistic potential of various waste management processes. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a key technology in this integration, where organic waste is converted into biogas and nutrient-rich digestate. The biogas can be used as a renewable energy source, while the digestate serves as an organic fertilizer. For instance, the integration of anaerobic digestion and composting has been shown to effectively recover energy and plant nutrients from pharmaceutical organic waste, producing biogas and compost rich in macro-nutrients (Cucina et al., 2017). Similarly, the co-pyrolysis of
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