Journal of Energy Bioscience 2024, Vol.15, No.4, 243-254 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 250 Table 1 Characterization of the impact assessment of biodiesel production (Adopted from Wahyono et al., 2020) Impact category Unit Total Biodiesel—Biod iesel Production Methanol Sodium Hydroxide Water, Ultrapure CPO-Palm Oil Production Electricity, Low Voltage Climate change—human Health DALY 0.00432 0 0.000 422 4.54×10-5 7.78×10-5 0.003 537 0.000 236 Ozone depletion DALY 5.44×10-7 0 2.35×10-7 5.95×10-8 2.35×10-8 2.04×10-7 2.17×10-8 Human toxicity DALY 0.000 368 1.59×10-6 8.66×10-5 1.26×10-5 1.17×10-5 0.00021 4.64×10-5 Photochemical oxidant formation DALY 1.54×10-7 0 5.1×10-8 3.75×10-9 1.54×10-8 6.68×10-8 1.67×10-8 Particulate matter formation DALY 0.000 936 0 0.000213 2.69×10-5 4.13×10-5 0.000 512 0.000 143 Ionizing radiation DALY 1.74×10-6 0 2.18×10-7 7.57×10-8 8×10−8 9.59×10-7 4.07×10-7 Climate change—ecosys tems species·yr 2.44×10-5 0 2.39×10-6 2.57×10-7 4.41×10-7 2 × 10−5 1.34×10-6 Terrestrial acidification species·yr 4.98×10-8 0 1.67×10-8 9.56×10-10 1.72×10-9 2.58×10-8 4.65×10-9 Freshwater eutrophication species·yr 2.52×10-8 0 3.28×10-9 8.24×10-10 2.06×10-9 1.49×10-8 4.15×10-9 Terrestrial ecotoxicity species·yr 2.44×10-7 9.49×10-10 8.12×10-9 4.56×10-10 2.74×10-9 2.31×10-7 1.36×10-9 Freshwater ecotoxicity species·yr 1.39×10-8 8.01×10-10 4.09×10-9 3.95×10-10 2.66×10-10 6.47×10-9 1.84×10-9 Marine ecotoxicity species·yr 2.24×10-9 1.71×10-12 4.84×10-10 7.76×10-11 7.04×10-11 1.26×10-9 3.48×10-10 Agricultural land occupation species·yr 9.13×10-7 0 4.29×10-8 2.5×10-8 1.59×10-8 7.25×10-7 1.05×10-10 Urban land occupation species·yr 5.15×10-7 0 5.32×10-8 7.29×10-9 7.06×10-8 3.63×10-7 2.11×10-8 Natural land transformation species·yr 7.18×10-7 0 2.9×10-7 8.35×10-9 3.54×10-8 3.48×10-7 3.67×10-8 Metal depletion $ 5.180802 0 1.221 0.131 0.253 3.345 0.230 Fossil depletion $ 107.6268 0 61.422 1.364 3.056 34.780 7.005 Labor conditions in palm oil plantations are another critical socio-economic challenge. Reports of poor working conditions, low wages, and exploitation of labor in some regions highlight the need for better labor practices and regulations (Fardilah et al., 2023). Ensuring fair labor conditions and sustainable practices in palm oil cultivation is essential for the long-term viability of biodiesel production. 7.3 Opportunities for improvement Despite the challenges, there are significant opportunities for improvement in biodiesel production from palm oil. Innovations in cultivation practices, such as the development of high-yield and disease-resistant palm varieties, can enhance productivity and sustainability (Zahan and Kano, 2018). Additionally, the use of by-products and mill effluents from palm oil processing as feedstocks for biodiesel production can reduce waste and improve overall efficiency (Zahan and Kano, 2018). Advances in processing technology also present opportunities for improvement. The adoption of more efficient and cost-effective transesterification methods, such as enzymatic and non-catalytic supercritical alcohol processes,
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