Journal of Energy Bioscience 2024, Vol.15, No.4, 243-254 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 245 without compromising yield (Darras et al., 2019). However, excessive use of chemical fertilizers can lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions and soil degradation (Fernández-Coppel et al., 2018; Jaroenkietkajorn and Gheewala, 2021). Oil palm plantations significantly impact local water cycles. They have higher evapotranspiration rates and lower soil infiltration capacities compared to natural forests, leading to altered water availability and movement (Gómez et al., 2023). Sustainable water management practices are essential to mitigate these impacts and ensure long-term viability. Pest and disease control in oil palm plantations often involves the use of chemical pesticides, which can have detrimental effects on the environment. Alternative methods, such as integrated pest management (IPM), are being explored to reduce reliance on chemicals and promote ecological balance (Darras et al., 2019). 2.4 Impact of climate change on palm oil cultivation Climate change poses significant challenges to palm oil cultivation, affecting both the growth conditions and the environmental impact of plantations. Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns can alter the suitability of regions for oil palm cultivation, potentially leading to shifts in plantation areas (Uning et al., 2020). Additionally, the conversion of forests to oil palm plantations contributes to CO2 emissions, exacerbating climate change (Rulli et al., 2019). Sustainable practices and adaptive management strategies are essential to mitigate these impacts and ensure the resilience of the palm oil industry in the face of climate change (Zahan and Kano, 2018; Meijaard et al., 2020). 3 Harvesting and Processing of Palm Oil 3.1 Methods of harvesting palm oil fruits Harvesting oil palm fruits is a critical step in the production of palm oil, as it directly impacts the yield and quality of the oil. The ideal harvesting cycle involves visiting each palm every eight to twelve days to avoid issues such as loose fruit picking, over-ripeness, or rotten fruit harvesting. Optimizing the harvest cycle can significantly improve yield, as demonstrated in a case study of a 2 000-hectare plantation where reducing the harvest cycle length from 19.6 to 8.3 days showed strong potential for yield improvement (Escallón-Barrios et al., 2020). 3.2 Processing techniques Traditional methods of palm oil extraction typically involve manual processes that produce lower quality and quantity of oil. For instance, manual vertical presses are commonly used but have been shown to have lower oil extraction ratios (OER) and oil extraction efficiencies (OEE) compared to more modern methods. These traditional methods also result in higher oil extraction losses (OEL) (Kiggundu, 2020). Modern methods of palm oil processing include the use of motorized extractors and advanced technologies such as microwave treatment and solvent extraction. Motorized palm oil extractors have been shown to produce higher quality oil with better performance efficiencies compared to manual methods. For example, a motorized extractor demonstrated higher OER and OEE, and lower OEL compared to a manual vertical press (Kiggundu, 2020). Additionally, microwave treatment followed by solvent extraction has been optimized to improve the quality of oil extracted from loose fruitlets, which are often more oil-rich than the inner layers of the bunch (Hadi, 2021). 3.3 Quality control in palm oil extraction Quality control in palm oil extraction is essential to ensure the production of high-quality oil. The latest developments in process technologies aim to improve the sustainability and efficiency of palm oil production while enhancing oil quality. Efforts have been intensified to develop methods that reduce process contaminants such as 3-monochloropropane diol (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE), which are found in refined edible oils. These advancements are crucial for producing crude palm oil with improved quality (Chew et al., 2021). Additionally, the quality of oil is assessed through various physio-chemical parameters such as free fatty acids (FFA), iodine value (IV), saponification value (SV), and peroxide value (PV) (Kiggundu, 2020).
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