Journal of Energy Bioscience 2024, Vol.15, No.2, 72-84 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/jeb 75 (TERI (OE) R-983) achieved a conversion rate of 87.175% under optimized conditions (Figure 1) (Almasi et al., 2019). This method not only accelerates the reaction but also reduces the energy consumption compared to traditional methods. Figure 1 Ultrasonic-Assisted Biodiesel Production Setup (Adapted from Almasi et al., 2019) Image description: (a) Schematic diagram of the ultrasonic system; (b) Actual ultrasonic system apparatus (Adapted from Almasi et al., 2019) Another innovative approach is the hydroprocessing of rapeseed oil, which converts it into hydrocarbon-based biodiesel. This method involves processing the oil at high temperatures and pressures using Ni–Mo/alumina catalysts, resulting in a product that closely resembles conventional diesel fuel in its hydrocarbon composition (Šimáček et al., 2009). This process is advantageous as it produces a biodiesel with properties very similar to those of petroleum diesel, potentially simplifying its integration into existing fuel infrastructure. Additionally, the direct production of biodiesel from rapeseeds without the need for a catalyst has been explored. This method simplifies the production process by eliminating the need for multiple steps and reducing the use of organic solvents and water, making it more environmentally friendly (Tanner et al., 2023). 3.4 Challenges and solutions in the production process Despite the advancements, several challenges remain in the production of biodiesel from rapeseed oil. One major challenge is the environmental impact associated with the cultivation of rapeseed, which requires significant fertilizer use and intensive agricultural practices. This can lead to issues such as eutrophication and acidification (González-García et al., 2012). To address this, life cycle assessments (LCA) have been conducted to identify key areas for improvement. For example, optimizing the use of residual straw from rapeseed fields for combustion in power plants can enhance carbon sequestration and reduce overall environmental impact (Herrmann et al., 2013). Another challenge is the high energy consumption and operational costs associated with traditional transesterification processes. The use of co-solvents like hexane has been shown to lower the operational temperature and improve conversion efficiency, thereby reducing energy consumption (Qiu et al., 2011). Additionally, the development of integrated process designs that combine acid-catalyzed pre-treatment with alkali-catalyzed transesterification can achieve high conversion rates while minimizing investment costs (Elad et al., 2010). The presence of glucosinolates in rapeseed meal, a byproduct of biodiesel production, poses another challenge as it limits its use as animal feed. However, in-situ alkaline transesterification has been shown to significantly reduce glucosinolate content, making the meal suitable for animal consumption (Qian et al., 2013). 4 Economic Analysis 4.1 Cost comparison of rapeseed oil biodiesel and conventional diesel The economic viability of rapeseed oil biodiesel compared to conventional diesel is a critical factor in its adoption. Several studies have highlighted the cost dynamics involved in producing and using rapeseed oil biodiesel. One study conducted a comprehensive life cycle cost analysis of using rapeseed oil as a straight vegetable oil (SVO)
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