Genomics and Applied Biology 2026, Vol.17, No.1, 37-50 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/gab 40 directly supplying nutrients (Khan et al., 2024; Cao et al., 2025). BSF organic fertilizer combines rapid nutrient availability with beneficial microbial stimulation, enhancing both carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling in soils (Figure 2) (Zhao et al., 2025). Understanding these nutrient characteristics is crucial for selecting appropriate organic amendments tailored to specific crop needs and soil conditions. Figure 2 Major categories of organic fertilizers used in agriculture, including manure, compost, biochar, and black soldier fly-derived fertilizers, and their primary functions in soil fertility management (Adopted from Zhao et al., 2025) 3.2 Regulatory effects of organic fertilizers on soil physicochemical properties Application of organic fertilizers generally improves key soil physicochemical properties including soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (AP), pH, and soil structure. Studies have demonstrated that partial substitution of chemical fertilizers with organic amendments increases SOC fractions such as easily oxidizable organic carbon (EOC) and particulate organic carbon (POC), which enhance soil fertility and aggregate stability (Wang et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). Organic fertilizer application also tends to increase total phosphorus content and available phosphorus by promoting phosphorus cycling genes, thereby improving phosphorus bioavailability (Ying et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2025). Moreover, the addition of biochar combined with organic fertilizer can significantly raise SOC and total phosphorus levels while moderating soil pH changes that often occur under intensive cropping systems (Cao et al., 2025; Yang et al., 2025). Organic amendments also influence enzyme activities related to nutrient cycling. For example, β-glucosidase activity, important for carbon cycling, can increase dramatically following combined biochar-organic fertilizer treatments, indicating enhanced microbial metabolic function (Yang et al., 2025). However, some phosphatase activities may decrease with certain co-applications of chemical and organic materials due to shifts in microbial community functions (Wang et al., 2025). Additionally, improvements in soil porosity and water retention have been observed with moderate rates of organic fertilizer application, which help reduce water consumption during critical crop growth stages (Chen et al., 2025). These regulatory effects collectively contribute to improved soil health and sustainable crop production. 3.3 Effects of organic fertilizers on soil carbon-nitrogen cycling and nutrient transformation Organic fertilizers play a pivotal role in enhancing soil carbon and nitrogen cycling by stimulating microbial communities responsible for these processes. Metagenomic analyses reveal that treatments with black soldier
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