Genomics and Applied Biology 2024, Vol.15, No.3, 162-171 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/gab 167 extensively studied, with successful examples of gene editing to enhance the production of biofuels, bioactive compounds, and other valuable products (Chen et al., 2019; Gratacap et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019). Other gene editing tools, such as ZFNs and TALENs, also play a significant role in microalgae breeding, although they are less commonly used compared to CRISPR-Cas9 (Ng et al., 2017). 5.4 Integration of metabolic engineering in microalgae breeding Metabolic engineering involves the modification of metabolic pathways to optimize the production of specific compounds. In microalgae, metabolic engineering is often integrated with genetic modification techniques to enhance the yield of biofuels, bioproducts, and other valuable metabolites. This approach includes the overexpression or suppression of key enzymes, the introduction of novel biosynthetic pathways, and the optimization of regulatory networks. The integration of metabolic engineering with advanced gene editing tools has the potential to significantly improve the efficiency and productivity of microalgae-based biorefineries (Fayyaz et al., 2020; Teng et al., 2020). 5.5 Case studies on microalgae breeding for industrial applications Several case studies highlight the successful application of breeding strategies in microalgae for industrial purposes. For instance, the use of CRISPR-Cas9 to develop thermo-sensitive genic male sterile lines in rice has been adapted to microalgae to enhance hybrid breeding and production efficiency (Zhou et al., 2016). Additionally, the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in conjunction with genetic modification has shown promise in optimizing microalgae cultivation and bioproduct yields (Teng et al., 2020). These case studies demonstrate the potential of advanced breeding strategies to overcome the challenges associated with microalgae production and to unlock new opportunities for industrial applications (Ng et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2019; Fayyaz et al., 2020; Teng et al., 2020). 6 Comparative Analysis: Kelp vs. Microalgae Breeding 6.1 Genetic complexity and breeding challenges Kelp and microalgae present distinct genetic complexities and breeding challenges. Kelp breeding has traditionally relied on heterosis and hybridization to improve traits such as productivity and quality. However, challenges such as genetic erosion, loss of heterozygosity, and accidental inter-cultivar admixing have been noted, particularly in regions like China (Hu et al., 2023). Additionally, the genetic diversity in wild kelp populations must be protected against genetic pollution, which can be managed by breeding local populations or developing non-hybridizing cultivars (Goecke et al., 2020). In contrast, many microalgae species lack the sexual characteristics necessary for traditional breeding, making genetic improvement more challenging. Instead, microalgae are often improved through mutagenesis, which can be achieved using chemical and physical mutagens without creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (Hlavová et al., 2015). This approach, while effective, presents its own set of challenges, including the need for high-throughput screening to identify beneficial mutations (Trovão et al., 2022). 6.2 Technological advances and applications Technological advancements have significantly impacted both kelp and microalgae breeding. For kelp, the development of hybridization-based breeding pipelines and the enrichment of high-quality reference genomes have been proposed to enhance breeding efficiency and cultivar robustness. Additionally, bioengineering strategies, such as priming for thermal and disease resistance, are being explored to meet future climate challenges (Hu et al., 2023). Microalgae breeding has benefited from advances in genetic engineering and synthetic biology. Techniques such as site-directed mutagenesis and the use of gene editing tools have enabled the creation of tailor-made genotypes with enhanced traits (Trovão et al., 2022). Moreover, synthetic biology approaches are being employed to redesign metabolic pathways for the production of valuable secondary metabolites (Sreenikethanam et al., 2022). These advancements have the potential to accelerate the development of microalgae strains with improved productivity and stress tolerance (Hlavová et al., 2015).
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