Bioscience Methods 2024, Vol.15, No.4, 196-206 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/bm 1 98 Mass rearing and release of natural enemies have been pivotal in the success of biological control programs (Xuan, 2024). Predatory insects, such as lady beetles and lacewings, are commonly used to control aphids and other soft-bodied pests in cotton crops. These natural enemies help maintain pest populations below damaging levels, reducing the need for chemical interventions (Figure 1) (Romeis et al., 2019; Baker et al., 2020; Francis et al., 2020). 0 Figure 1 Routes through which natural enemies could be exposed to plant-produced insecticidal compounds (Adopted from Romeis et al., 2019) Image caption: Arthropods, including herbivores and natural enemies, can feed directly on non-mobile plant parts or pollen (1). Natural enemies can be exposed through prey or hosts when consuming other arthropods, such as herbivores or other members of higher trophic levels (2). Honeydew, sugary excretions of phloem-feeding Hemiptera, might expose natural enemies if the insecticidal compounds are present in the phloem (3). Insecticidal compounds may enter the soil via decaying plant tissue, root exudates, or dead herbivores or natural enemies, where soil living arthropods may get exposed (4). Arthropods living in off-crop habitats may also get exposed when insecticidal compounds leached or exuded from the plants are transported by ground water, or when pollen or plant debris are blown off the field (5, 6). Finally, herbivores and natural enemies leaving the crop may expose natural enemies in off-crop habitats (7) (Adopted from Romeis et al., 2019) 3.2.2 Parasitoids in cotton pest management Parasitoids, such as certain species of wasps, play a crucial role in controlling cotton pests. These insects lay their eggs inside or on the bodies of pest insects, and the developing parasitoid larvae eventually kill their hosts. This method has been effective in managing pests like the cotton bollworm and whiteflies, contributing to sustainable pest control in cotton farming (Romeis et al., 2019; Francis et al., 2020). 3.3 Cultural control techniques 3.3.1 Crop rotation Crop rotation is a cultural control technique that involves alternating the types of crops grown in a particular field from one season to the next. This practice disrupts the life cycles of pests that are specific to certain crops, thereby reducing their populations. For example, rotating cotton with non-host crops can help manage soil-borne pests and diseases, enhancing the overall health of the cropping system (Wilson et al., 2018; Veres et al., 2020). 3.3.2 Intercropping and trap crops Intercropping involves growing two or more crops in proximity, which can help in pest management by increasing biodiversity and disrupting pest habitats. Trap cropping, a specific type of intercropping, uses plants that attract
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