Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 270-280 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 272 3 Soil Management for High-Yield Rice Cultivation 3.1 Soil fertility and nutrient management Effective soil fertility and nutrient management are crucial for achieving high rice yields. Integrated nutrient management (INM) practices, which combine organic and inorganic fertilizers, have been shown to enhance soil fertility and rice productivity. For instance, the application of poultry manure (PM) and vermicompost (VC) along with recommended doses of inorganic fertilizers significantly improved nutrient uptake and use efficiency, leading to higher grain yields and better soil fertility (Urmi et al., 2022). Similarly, long-term studies have demonstrated that partial replacement of mineral fertilizers with organic matter, such as crop residues, can maintain rice yields and improve soil organic carbon and total nitrogen content (Chen et al., 2021). These practices not only sustain soil fertility but also enhance the agronomic efficiency and yield stability of rice crops. 3.2 Use of organic and inorganic fertilizers The combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers is a sustainable approach to rice cultivation. Studies have shown that integrating cattle manure (CM) or poultry manure with chemical fertilizers can significantly improve rice yield and soil properties. For example, the application of CM or PM with inorganic fertilizers increased grain yield, soil organic carbon, and microbial biomass carbon compared to the use of chemical fertilizers alone (Iqbal et al., 2019; Paramesh et al., 2023). Additionally, the use of organic amendments such as spent mushroom compost, green manure, and rice straw in combination with NPK fertilizers has been found to enhance soil pH, cation exchange capacity, and available phosphorus, leading to higher rice yields (Mi et al., 2018). These findings highlight the importance of balanced fertilization strategies that incorporate both organic and inorganic sources to optimize nutrient availability and improve soil health. 3.3 Soil pH and structure optimization Optimizing soil pH and structure is essential for maximizing rice yield. The application of organic manures, such as cattle manure, has been shown to significantly increase soil pH and cation exchange capacity, while reducing exchangeable acidity and aluminum concentrations (Mi et al., 2018). This improvement in soil chemical properties creates a more favorable environment for rice growth. Furthermore, the addition of organic matter, such as poultry manure and vermicompost, has been found to decrease soil bulk density and enhance soil physical properties, which are critical for root development and nutrient uptake (Urmi et al., 2022). These practices not only improve soil structure but also contribute to better water retention and aeration, ultimately supporting higher rice productivity. 4 Water Management Techniques 4.1 Irrigation methods for yield optimization Irrigation methods play a crucial role in optimizing rice yield. Various techniques have been explored to enhance water use efficiency and maintain or increase rice productivity. One such method is the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), which involves keeping rice fields moist but unflooded during the vegetative stage and maintaining shallow flooding during the post-vegetative stage. This method has been shown to significantly improve root growth, photosynthesis, and grain yield, resulting in a 58% higher grain yield with 16% less water compared to conventional methods (Thakur et al., 2018). Another effective technique is alternate wetting and drying (AWD), which has been found to save 40%~44% of water while maintaining similar grain yields to continuous flooding (CF) (Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). Additionally, deficit irrigation combined with higher nitrogen fertilization has been shown to save 50%~60% of irrigation water compared to traditional flooding systems, while still increasing grain and straw yields (Abdou et al., 2021). Drip irrigation under plastic film mulching is another innovative method that has been used to improve water use efficiency and yield in arid areas (Figure 2) (Zhao et al., 2023). 4.2 Water use efficiency and conservation Improving water use efficiency (WUE) is essential for sustainable rice cultivation, especially in regions facing water scarcity. AWD has been demonstrated to significantly enhance water productivity, with studies showing a 68% increase in water productivity compared to CF (Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). Similarly, SRI practices have
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