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Bioscience Evidence (online), 2024, Vol. 14 ISSN 1927-6478 https://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be © 2024 BioSci Publisher, an online publishing platform of Sophia Publishing Group. All Rights Reserved. Sophia Publishing Group (SPG), founded in British Columbia of Canada, is a multilingual publisher Latest Content Tea Oil and Their Role in Human Health: A Meta-Analysis YuejunWu Bioscience Evidence, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 26 Development of Precision Agriculture Techniques for Soybean Yield Improvement Yuting Zhong, Shuiliang Zhong Bioscience Evidence, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 27 High Yield Strategies in Rice Cultivation: Agronomic Practices and Innovations JunLyu Bioscience Evidence, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 28 A Review of the Morphological Structure and Photosynthetic Metabolic Characteristics of Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus spp.) Jungui Xu, Zizhong Wang Bioscience Evidence, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 29 The Physicochemical Properties of Hemp Fibers and Their Applications in the Textile Industry ShiyingYu Bioscience Evidence, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 30
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 250-259 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 250 Meta-Analysis Open Access Tea Oil and Their Role in Human Health: A Meta-Analysis YuejunWu Zhejiang Gongxiang Agricultural Development Co., Ltd, Zhuji, Zhejiang, 311800, China Corresponding email: 452707756@qq.com Bioscience Evidence, 2024, Vol.14, No.6 doi: 10.5376/be.2024.14.0026 Received: 17 Sep., 2024 Accepted: 21 Oct., 2024 Published: 04 Nov., 2024 Copyright © 2024 Wu, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Wu Y.J., 2024, Tea oil and their role in human health: a meta-analysis, Bioscience Evidence, 14(6): 250-259 (doi: 10.5376/be.2024.14.0026) Abstract The primary goal of this study is to evaluate the health benefits of tea oil, focusing on its potential therapeutic effects and mechanisms of action in human health. The analysis revealed several key findings. Tea oil, rich in unsaturated fatty acids and bioactive compounds such as catechins and tea polyphenols, exhibits significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-lowering properties. Studies have shown that tea oil can improve glucose and lipid levels, and modulate gut microbiota in diabetic models. Additionally, tea oil has demonstrated potential neuroprotective effects through its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory actions. Clinical trials and observational studies suggest that regular consumption of tea oil may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and improve metabolic health. The findings of this study suggest that tea oil holds considerable promise as a natural therapeutic agent for various health conditions, including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and neuroinflammation. Further high-quality clinical trials are needed to substantiate these benefits and elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Keywords Tea oil; Human health; Antioxidant; Anti-inflammatory; Lipid-lowering; Neuroprotection; Cardiovascular health 1 Introduction Camellia oleifera Abel, commonly known as the tea oil tree, is a subtropical evergreen shrub or small tree predominantly cultivated in China and Southeast Asian countries. Historically, it has been valued for its high nutritional and medicinal properties, making it a staple in these regions. The primary regions of production include the provinces of Hunan, Jiangxi, and Guangxi in China, where the cultivation of Camellia oleifera has been a traditional practice for centuries (Luan et al., 2020). The extraction process of tea oil fromCamellia oleifera Abel involves cold pressing the seeds, which preserves the oil's nutritional and therapeutic properties. This oil is primarily used in culinary applications, skincare products, and traditional medicine. Its high content of unsaturated fatty acids and antioxidants makes it a valuable ingredient in various health and wellness products (Shen et al., 2022; Zhong et al., 2023). In recent years, there has been a growing interest in plant-based oils due to their potential health benefits. Tea oil, particularly from Camellia species, has garnered attention for its rich composition of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, flavonoids, and unsaturated fatty acids (Saeed et al., 2017; Teixeira and Sousa, 2021). These compounds are known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties, which contribute to the oil's therapeutic potential. Tea oil has been shown to have several health benefits, making it relevant in nutrition, skincare, and traditional medicine. It is used to improve cardiovascular health, enhance skin hydration and elasticity, and treat various skin conditions. Additionally, its anti-inflammatory properties make it a valuable component in managing chronic diseases and promoting overall wellness (Wang et al., 2017a; Teixeira and Sousa, 2021). This paper aims to conduct a comprehensive meta-analysis of the existing literature on the health benefits of tea oil, with a particular focus on Camellia oleifera Abel. By synthesizing data from various studies, this paper seeks to provide a detailed understanding of the therapeutic properties of tea oil and its applications in modern health and wellness practices. The scope of this analysis includes evaluating the nutritional composition, bioactive compounds, and clinical efficacy of tea oil in promoting human health.
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 250-259 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 251 2 Chemical Composition and Bioactive Compounds of Camellia oleifera Oil 2.1 Fatty acids profile Camellia oleifera oil is rich in essential fatty acids, particularly oleic acid and linoleic acid. The fatty acid composition of cold-pressed Camellia oleifera oil has been analyzed using 1H-NMR, revealing that oleic acid constitutes approximately 75.75% of the total fatty acids, while linoleic acid accounts for about 6.0% (Salinero et al., 2012). These levels are comparable to those found in olive oil, which is well-known for its health benefits. Additionally, another study confirmed that oleic acid is the major component of Camellia oleifera oil, making up 52.89% of its composition (Lee et al., 2019). The presence of these unsaturated fatty acids is significant as they are known to contribute to cardiovascular health and possess anti-inflammatory properties (Su et al., 2014). 2.2 Antioxidants and polyphenols Camellia oleifera oil is also notable for its antioxidant and polyphenolic content. Various pretreatment methods of camellia seeds, such as hot air, steam, and puffing, have been shown to influence the phenolic profile and antioxidant capacity of the oil. These treatments can increase the tocopherol and total sterol content, enhancing the oil's antioxidant properties (Wang et al., 2022). The phenolic compounds in Camellia seed oils include benzoic acids, cinnamic acids, flavanols, flavonols, flavones, and dihydroflavonoids, with phenolic acids being the most abundant class (Wang et al., 2017a). These compounds are known for their bioactivity, including anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic effects, which contribute to the overall health benefits of the oil. 2.3 Other bioactive components In addition to fatty acids and polyphenols, Camellia oleifera oil contains other bioactive components such as squalene, vitamins, and minerals. Squalene, a natural antioxidant, is present in significant amounts and is known for its skin-protective and anti-aging properties (Kurasiak-Popowska et al., 2019). The oil also contains various vitamins, including tocopherols (vitamin E), which are potent antioxidants that protect cells from oxidative damage (Wang et al., 2022). Furthermore, the presence of essential minerals enhances the nutritional value of the oil, contributing to its health-promoting properties. 3 Health Benefits of Tea Oil 3.1 Cardiovascular health: effects on blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and heart disease risk Tea oil, derived from the seeds of Camellia sinensis, has been shown to have significant cardiovascular benefits. Regular consumption of tea and its bioactive compounds, such as epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) (Figure 1), can enhance nitric oxide bioavailability, which helps in lowering blood pressure and improving endothelial function (Dludla et al., 2020; Keller and Wallace, 2021). Additionally, tea oil has been found to reduce levels of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and C-reactive protein, markers associated with oxidative stress and inflammation, thereby potentially lowering the risk of coronary artery disease (CAD) (Cao et al., 2019; Dludla et al., 2020). The flavonoids present in tea oil also contribute to reducing hyperlipidemia and hypertension, further supporting cardiovascular health (Fang et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019). 3.2 Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects: reductions in inflammation and oxidative stress Tea oil is rich in polyphenols and other bioactive compounds that exhibit strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds help in reducing oxidative stress by neutralizing free radicals and inhibiting lipid peroxidation (Dludla et al., 2020; Shang et al., 2021). The anti-inflammatory effects are mediated through the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6, and the downregulation of NF-κB signaling pathways (Keller and Wallace, 2021; Shang et al., 2021). These mechanisms collectively contribute to the reduction of chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, which are underlying factors in many chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and cancers (Cao et al., 2019; Shang et al., 2021). 3.3 Skin health and anti-aging properties: skin hydration, elasticity, and anti-aging benefits Tea oil has been found to have beneficial effects on skin health, primarily due to its antioxidant properties. The polyphenols in tea oil help in protecting the skin from oxidative damage caused by UV radiation and environmental pollutants. Additionally, the anti-inflammatory properties of tea oil can reduce skin inflammation
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 250-259 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 252 and improve skin conditions such as acne and eczema. Regular application of tea oil can enhance skin hydration and elasticity, thereby reducing the appearance of wrinkles and other signs of aging (Shang et al., 2021). The bioactive compounds in tea oil also promote collagen synthesis, which is crucial for maintaining skin structure and firmness. Figure 1 Signaling pathways involved in the protective effects of tea bioactive compounds against cardiovascular diseases (Adopted from Cao et al., 2019) Image caption: Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) reduced atherosclerosis by inhibiting the activation of the Notch receptor induced by oxidized-LDL. EGCG and epicatechin could attenuate dyslipidemia through regulating the SREBP1 pathway. EGCG could reduce the reactive oxygen species level in mitochondria and stabilize the mitochondrial membrane potential, thus attenuating cell swelling and apoptosis of endothelial cells. EGCG and epicatechin could reduce the apoptosis of cardiac cells through regulating the PI3K pathway. EGCG could protect endothelial function through alleviating endoplasmic reticulum stress. EGCG and catechin could elevate the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), thus protecting endothelial function. EGCG could reduce oxidative stress by regulating the p38 MAPK and ERK1/2 pathways. Abbreviations: ADAM, A-Disintegrin-And-Metalloprotease; NICD, Notch intracellular domain; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase; Akt, α serine/threonine-protein kinase; SREBP, sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor; LXR, liver X receptor; RXR, retinoid X receptor; NCOA6, nuclear receptor coactivator 6; PTEN, phosphatase and tensin homolog; PDK, phosphoinositide dependent kinase; Nrf, nuclear factor E2-related factor; HO-1, heme oxygenase-1; TRPV, transient receptor potential vanilloid type (Adopted from Cao et al., 2019) 3.4 Digestive and immune health: effects on gastrointestinal and immune system health Tea oil has been shown to have positive effects on digestive health by promoting the growth of beneficial gut microbiota and inhibiting the growth of pathogenic bacteria. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of tea oil also help in reducing gastrointestinal inflammation and oxidative stress, which can improve overall gut health (Shang et al., 2021). Furthermore, the bioactive compounds in tea oil can enhance immune function by modulating immune cell activity and cytokine production, thereby strengthening the body's defense mechanisms against infections and diseases. 4 Comparative Analysis with Other Plant Oils 4.1 Olive oil vs. Camellia oleifera oil: comparative nutritional and health benefits Camellia oleifera oil, commonly known as tea seed oil, and olive oil are both renowned for their health benefits, but they exhibit distinct nutritional profiles and health impacts. Camellia oleifera oil is rich in oleic acid, which constitutes about 52.89% of its composition, and has been shown to have significant anti-asthmatic effects by
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 250-259 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 253 modulating inflammatory cells and cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-5 (Lee et al., 2019) (Figure 2; Table 1). This oil also contains high levels of monounsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E, and polyphenol antioxidants, which contribute to its health benefits, including reducing oxidative stress and boosting immunity (Seyis et al., 2019). In comparison, olive oil is also high in monounsaturated fats, particularly oleic acid, and is well-known for its cardiovascular benefits. However, tea seed oil has a higher smoke point and contains fewer saturated fatty acids than olive oil, making it a preferable option for high-temperature cooking (Seyis et al., 2019). Additionally, tea seed oil has a milder flavor and is less "oily," which can be advantageous for culinary uses where a lighter oil is desired. Figure 2 C. japonica oil dramatically inhibited not only cDNA levels but also protein expressions in all Th2-related cytokine such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 (Adopted from Lee et al., 2019) Image caption: (A) C. japonica oil significantly and dose-dependently suppressed the genes’ levels of Th2-related cytokine such as IL-4,IL-5andIL-13andespeciallytheIL-5leveldecreasedfromin100 mg/kg C. japonica oil treatment. C. japonica oil using with 100 mg/kg treatment perfectly controlled Th2-related cytokine such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, not only (B) in the quantitative point of view,butalso(C-E)inthequalitativepointofview.a,vehiclecontrol;b,asthmainduction;c,dexamethasone;d,10 mg/kg/day C. japonica oil;e,100 mg/kg/day C. japonica oil;f,500 mg/kg/day C. japonica oil. Each bar represents the mean ± SEM (n = 8). *p < 0.05 vs. control; **p < 0.001 vs. control; $p < 0.05 vs. asthma induction; $$p < 0.01 vs. asthma induction; #p < 0.05 vs. dexamethasone. Scale Bar = 100 µm. Magnification, × 200 (Adopted from Lee et al., 2019) Table 1 The quantitative score chart of histopathological changes in the lung (Adopted from Lee et al., 2019) Mucous hypersecretion (0–3) Epithelial cell hyperplasia (0–3) Inflammatory cell infiltration (0–3) CON 0.1 ± 0.35 0.4 ± 0.52 0.1 ± 0.35 OVA 2.9 ± 0.35* 2.8 ± 0.46** 2.9 ± 0.35** DEX 0.3 ± 0.46$$ 0.6 ± 0.52$$ 0.6 ± 0.52*,$$ Camellia japonica10 mg/kg 2.8 ± 0.46**,## 2.9 ± 0.35**,## 2.6 ± 0.52**,## Camellia japonica100 mg/kg 1.5 ± 0.76**,$$,## 2.4 ± 0.52**,## 1.9 ± 0.83**,$,# Camellia japonica500 mg/kg 0.4 ± 0.52$$ 0.4 ± 0.52$$ 0.52 ± 0.53$$ Note: Each score explains the means ± standard deviation (N = 8); *:p < 0.05 vs. Control; **: p < 0.001 vs.control; $: p < 0.05 vs. asthma induction; $$: p < 0.01 vs. asthma induction; #: p < 0.05 vs. Dexamethasone; ##; p < 0.01 vs. dexamethasone (Adopted from Lee et al., 2019)
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 250-259 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 254 4.2 Other traditional oils: brief comparisons with other oils like sunflower and coconut oils When comparing Camellia oleifera oil to other traditional oils such as sunflower and coconut oils, several differences in nutritional content and health benefits emerge. Sunflower oil is predominantly composed of polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid, which is beneficial for heart health but less stable at high temperatures compared to the monounsaturated fats in tea seed oil. Coconut oil, on the other hand, is high in saturated fats, which can raise cholesterol levels and potentially increase the risk of heart disease, although it is also praised for its antimicrobial properties and medium-chain triglycerides that can boost metabolism (Wang et al., 2017b). Camellia oleifera oil stands out due to its balanced fatty acid profile, which includes a significant amount of oleic acid and lower levels of saturated fats compared to coconut oil. It also contains beneficial compounds such as squalene and various phytosterols, which are known for their antioxidant properties and potential to lower cholesterol levels (Wang et al., 2017b). Furthermore, the presence of unique polyphenols in tea seed oil, similar to those found in green tea, adds to its health-promoting properties, making it a versatile and healthful alternative to other traditional oils (Wang et al., 2017a; Teixeira and Sousa, 2021). 5 Consumer Perception and Market Trends 5.1 Market analysis of Camellia oleifera oil: overview of market trends, demand, and consumer preferences Camellia oleifera oil, commonly known as tea seed oil, has been gaining traction in various markets due to its numerous health benefits and versatile applications. The oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic acid, and contains significant amounts of antioxidants such as Vitamin E and polyphenols, which contribute to its health-promoting properties (Lee and Yen, 2006; Wang et al., 2011; Seyis et al., 2019). The growing awareness of these benefits has led to an increase in demand, particularly in health-conscious consumer segments. The market for Camellia oleifera oil is expanding not only in traditional markets like China and Japan but also in Western countries where consumers are increasingly seeking natural and healthful alternatives to conventional cooking oils (Seyis et al., 2019; Teixeira and Sousa, 2021). The oil's mild flavor and high smoke point make it a preferred choice for cooking, while its applications in cosmetics and skincare products further drive its market growth (Seyis et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2020). Additionally, the oil's use in industrial applications, such as machinery lubricants and rust prevention, adds to its market versatility (Seyis et al., 2019). 5.2 Barriers to consumption: factors affecting consumer adoption, including awareness and price Despite its growing popularity, several barriers affect the widespread adoption of Camellia oleifera oil. One of the primary challenges is the lack of consumer awareness about the oil and its benefits. Many consumers are more familiar with other oils like olive oil and coconut oil, which have been marketed extensively (Seyis et al., 2019; Teixeira and Sousa, 2021). This lack of awareness can be attributed to limited marketing efforts and the relatively recent introduction of Camellia oleifera oil to non-Asian markets. Price is another significant barrier. The production of Camellia oleifera oil involves labor-intensive processes, and the yield from tea seeds is relatively low compared to other oilseeds, leading to higher costs (Wang et al., 2011; Zeng et al., 2014). This makes the oil more expensive than many of its counterparts, which can deter price-sensitive consumers. Moreover, the availability of the oil can be inconsistent due to the seasonal nature of tea seed harvesting and the limited number of regions where Camellia oleifera is cultivated (Wang et al., 2017a; Shen et al., 2022). This can lead to supply chain issues and further drive up prices, making it less accessible to a broader audience. 6 Case Studies of Camellia oleifera Oil Usage 6.1 Historical use in traditional medicine: examples from east Asian medicinal practices Camellia oleifera oil, has a rich history in traditional East Asian medicine, particularly in countries like China, and Korea. Historically, it has been used for its purported health benefits and healing properties. In Japan, Tsubaki oil was commonly used to treat burns and wounds due to its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties (Teixeira
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 250-259 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 255 and Sousa, 2021). Traditional Chinese medicine also utilized Camellia oil for its ability to nourish the skin and hair, promoting a healthy and youthful appearance (Seyis et al., 2019). Additionally, in Korea, the oil was often applied to the scalp to prevent hair loss and to maintain hair health, leveraging its rich content of oleic acid and other beneficial fatty acids (Seyis et al., 2019; Teixeira and Sousa, 2021). 6.2 Contemporary applications: current use in wellness, skincare, and dietary supplements In modern times, Camellia oleifera oil has found a variety of applications in wellness, skincare, and dietary supplements. Its high content of monounsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic acid, makes it a popular ingredient in skincare products aimed at moisturizing and protecting the skin (Figure 3). The oil is often included in formulations for night creams, serums, and lotions due to its ability to penetrate deeply into the skin and provide long-lasting hydration (Seyis et al., 2019). Additionally, its antioxidant properties, attributed to the presence of polyphenols and Vitamin E, help in reducing oxidative stress and combating signs of aging (Seyis et al., 2019; Zhong et al., 2023). In the wellness industry, Camellia oleifera oil is used in aromatherapy and massage oils, where its light texture and pleasant aroma enhance relaxation and stress relief (Seyis et al., 2019). Furthermore, the oil is incorporated into dietary supplements for its potential health benefits, including boosting immunity and supporting cardiovascular health due to its favorable fatty acid profile (Seyis et al., 2019; Zhong et al., 2023). The oil's versatility extends to culinary uses as well, where it is valued for its mild flavor and high smoke point, making it suitable for cooking and salad dressings. Figure 3 (A). The weights of nutrients in four ROC (Red-flowered oil-tea camellia) oils calculated according to the gray correlation coefficient method. (B). Correlation degrees of four ROC oils. (C). The weights of nutrients in five clones of Camellia chekiangoleosa Hu. oil, calculated according to the gray correlation coefficient method. (D). Correlation degree of five clones of Camellia chekiangoleosa Hu. oil. YS-1, YS-2, YS-4, LK005 and LP22 all represent clone varieties of Camellia chekiangoleosa Hu., and CPO, CSE and CRE fruit materials were mixed samples of 5 clones. CCH: Camellia chekiangoleosa; CPO: Camellia polyodonta; CSE: Camellia semiserrata; CRE: Camellia reticulata (Adopted from Zhong et al., 2023)
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 250-259 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 256 7 Discussion 7.1 Comparison with previous studies The findings of this study align with and expand upon previous research on the health effects of tea oil. For instance, the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties of tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) have been well-documented in various studies. Tea tree oil has been shown to be effective in reducing dental plaque and treating periodontitis when used in oral mouthwashes and gels, respectively (Kairey et al., 2023). Additionally, its efficacy in managing skin infections and conditions such as acne and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been noted, although more high-quality trials are needed to substantiate these claims (Carson et al., 2006; Kairey et al., 2023). The neuroprotective potential of tea tree oil through its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory actions has also been highlighted, suggesting its broader therapeutic applications (Rahman et al., 2023). Furthermore, the health benefits of tea oil, including its anti-tumor, lipid-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects, have been corroborated by studies on its high unsaturated fatty acid content and other bioactive components (He et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2018; Shang et al., 2021). 7.2 Mechanisms of action The health benefits of tea oil can be attributed to several biological mechanisms. The antimicrobial action of tea tree oil is primarily due to the membrane-toxicity of its monoterpenoid components, which disrupt the cell membranes of pathogens (Cox et al., 2001). Its anti-inflammatory effects are linked to the modulation of immune responses, which can help in reducing inflammation and promoting healing (Carson et al., 2006; Rahman et al., 2023). Tea oil's neuroprotective effects are thought to be mediated through its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, which can inhibit neuroinflammation and protect against neurodegenerative diseases (Rahman et al., 2023). Additionally, the antioxidant properties of tea polyphenols and catechins in tea oil contribute to its ability to neutralize free radicals and protect cellular structures (He et al., 2011; Shang et al., 2021). These mechanisms collectively underpin the diverse health benefits of tea oil, ranging from antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects to neuroprotection and cardiovascular health. 7.3 Practical applications and limitations Tea oil holds significant potential for practical applications in various health domains. Its use in oral care products, such as mouthwashes and gels, can help in managing dental plaque and periodontitis (Kairey et al., 2023). Topical applications of tea tree oil can be effective in treating skin infections and conditions like acne and MRSA, although care must be taken to avoid high concentrations that may cause irritation (Carson et al., 2006; Kairey et al., 2023). The potential neuroprotective benefits of tea oil suggest its use in formulations aimed at preventing or managing neurodegenerative diseases (Rahman et al., 2023). However, the current research has several limitations. Many studies have small sample sizes, and there is a need for more high-quality, large-scale clinical trials to confirm the therapeutic efficacy and safety of tea oil (Carson et al., 2006; Kairey et al., 2023). Additionally, the variability in the composition of tea oil products and the lack of standardization pose challenges for consistent application and efficacy (Carson et al., 2006; Rahman et al., 2023). Future research should focus on addressing these limitations and exploring the full therapeutic potential of tea oil through well-designed studies and standardized formulations. 8 Conclusion Tea oil, derived from the seeds of oil tea plants, has been shown to possess numerous health benefits due to its rich composition of bioactive compounds. The high content of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic acid, contributes to its cardiovascular protective effects, including the prevention of coronary heart disease and the delay of atherosclerosis. Additionally, tea oil contains significant amounts of catechins and tea polyphenols, which exhibit strong antioxidant properties, helping to eliminate free radicals and protect cellular structures. The anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties of tea oil have also been well-documented, making it effective in treating skin conditions and infections. Furthermore, tea oil has demonstrated potential in regulating lipid and glucose levels, which is beneficial for managing conditions such as diabetes and hyperlipidemia. Overall, the diverse bioactive components in tea oil contribute to its multifaceted health benefits, including anti-tumor, liver and heart protection, and immune regulation.
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 250-259 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 257 Despite the promising health benefits of tea oil, several gaps in knowledge remain that warrant further investigation. Future research should focus on conducting large-scale, high-quality randomized controlled trials to substantiate the therapeutic efficacy of tea oil in various health conditions. Specifically, more studies are needed to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial actions of tea oil, as well as its potential side effects when used in higher concentrations. Additionally, research should aim to identify the optimal dosages and formulations of tea oil for different therapeutic applications. Investigating the long-term effects of tea oil consumption on metabolic health and its impact on gut microbiota could provide valuable insights into its role in managing chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disorders. Finally, exploring the synergistic effects of tea oil with other natural compounds and its potential use in combination therapies could open new avenues for its application in integrative medicine. The findings from this study highlight the potential of tea oil as a valuable addition to public health strategies aimed at improving overall health and preventing chronic diseases. Given its rich composition of unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory compounds, incorporating tea oil into dietary guidelines could help reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and certain cancers. Public health authorities should consider promoting the consumption of tea oil as part of a balanced diet, emphasizing its benefits for heart health, metabolic regulation, and immune support. However, it is essential to provide clear guidelines on the safe and effective use of tea oil, including recommended dosages and potential contraindications, particularly for individuals with specific health conditions or those who are pregnant. Educating the public about the proper use of tea oil and its potential health benefits can empower individuals to make informed dietary choices that support their long-term health and well-being. Acknowledgments Sincerely thanks the reviewers for their constructive criticisms and suggestions during the review process. These feedbacks not only helped us improve the structure and content of the paper but also provided valuable insights for our future research work. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Cao S., Zhao C., Gan R., Xu X., Wei X., Corke H., Atanasov A., and Li H., 2019, Effects and mechanisms of tea and its bioactive compounds for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases: an updated review, Antioxidants, 8(6): 166. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8060166 Carson C., Hammer K., and Riley T., 2006, Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil: a review of antimicrobial and other medicinal properties, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 19: 50-62. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.19.1.50-62.2006 Cox S., Mann C., Markham J., Gustafson J., Warmington J., and Wyllie S., 2001, Determining the antimicrobial actions of tea tree oil, Molecules : A Journal of Synthetic Chemistry and Natural Product Chemistry, 6: 87-91. https://doi.org/10.3390/60100087 Dludla P., Nkambule B., Mazibuko-Mbeje S., Nyambuya T., Orlando P., Silvestri S., Marcheggiani F., Cirilli I., Ziqubu K., Ndevahoma F., Mxinwa V., Mokgalaboni K., Sabbatinelli J., Louw J., Louw J., and Tiano L., 2020, Tea consumption and its effects on primary and secondary prevention of coronary artery disease: Qualitative synthesis of evidence from randomized controlled trials, Clinical Nutrition ESPEN, 41: 77-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2020.11.006 Fang J., Sureda A., Silva A., Khan F., Xu S., and Nabavi S., 2019, Trends of tea in cardiovascular health and disease: a critical review, Trends in Food Science and Technology, 88: 385-396. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TIFS.2019.04.001 He L., Guoying Z., Huaiyun Z., and Junang L., 2011, Research progress on the health function of tea oil, Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 5: 485-489. Kairey L., Agnew T., Bowles E., Barkla B., Wardle J., and Lauche R., 2023, Efficacy and safety of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil for human health—a systematic review of randomized controlled trials, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 14: 1116077. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2023.1116077 Keller A., and Wallace T., 2021, Tea intake and cardiovascular disease: an umbrella review, Annals of Medicine, 53: 929-944. https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2021.1933164
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Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 260-269 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 260 Research Insight Open Access Development of Precision Agriculture Techniques for Soybean Yield Improvement Yuting Zhong1,2, Shuiliang Zhong1 1 Hangzhou Shuiliang Vegetable Professional Cooperative，Xiaoshan, 311202, Zhejiang, China 2 Zhejiang Agronomist College, Hangzhou, 311202, Zhejiang, China Corresponding email: 2510246308@qq.com Bioscience Evidence, 2024, Vol.14, No.6 doi: 10.5376/be.2024.14.0027 Received: 25 Sep., 2024 Accepted: 03 Nov., 2024 Published: 17 Nov., 2024 Copyright © 2024 Zhong and Zhong, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Zhong Y.T., and Zhong S.L., 2024, Development of precision agriculture techniques for soybean yield improvement, Bioscience Evidence, 14(6): 260-269 (doi: 10.5376/be.2024.14.0027) Abstract Precision agriculture (PA) has emerged as a transformative approach to optimizing crop production, particularly for high-value crops like soybean. With the growing demand for increased soybean yields to meet global food security needs, PA technologies offer promising solutions for enhancing productivity, sustainability, and environmental stewardship. This study examines the application of various precision agriculture techniques in soybean farming, focusing on the integration of GPS, GIS, remote sensing, soil sensors, variable rate technology (VRT), and automation to improve yield efficiency. A case study of a soybean farm in the Midwest highlights the successful implementation of these technologies, demonstrating significant improvements in yield and resource management. Additionally, the study explores the role of data analytics, decision support systems, and machine learning in optimizing farm management decisions. Economic and environmental impacts, including cost-benefit analysis and sustainability, are also discussed. The findings suggest that while the adoption of precision agriculture can lead to substantial economic gains and environmental benefits, challenges remain in widespread adoption. This research provides a comprehensive overview of the potential of precision agriculture to revolutionize soybean farming, while outlining future directions for further innovation and adoption in the sector. Keywords Precision agriculture; Soybean; Yield improvement; GPS/GIS; Remote sensing; Sustainability 1 Introduction Precision agriculture (PA) is an advanced farming practice that utilizes technology to optimize field-level management regarding crop farming. The integration of sensor-based decision tools, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and machine learning algorithms has revolutionized the way farmers manage their crops. These technologies enable the precise application of nutrients and water, thereby enhancing crop productivity and resource-use efficiency. For instance, sensor-based nutrient and irrigation management has been shown to significantly improve the physiological performance and yield of soybean crops by providing real-time assessments of crop health and needs (Sachin et al., 2023a). UAV platforms equipped with multi-sensor data collection capabilities have also been employed to accurately estimate crop yields, further aiding in the optimization of farming practices (Eugenio et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2023). Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a critical crop in global agriculture due to its high protein content and versatility in food and industrial applications. It plays a vital role in food security and economic stability, particularly in regions where it is a major agricultural product. The continuous improvement of soybean yield is essential to meet the growing global food demand and address security concerns. Advances in precision agriculture techniques, such as the use of UAVs and machine learning for yield prediction, have shown promise in enhancing soybean production efficiency and sustainability (Vogel et al., 2021; Yoosefzadeh-Najafabadi et al., 2021). Moreover, understanding the physiological processes and environmental interactions that influence soybean yield can lead to more targeted and effective breeding programs (Smidt et al., 2016; Fathi et al., 2023; Wang, 2024). This study attempts to explore the development and evaluation of precision agriculture techniques to improve soybean yield, discuss the integration of advanced technologies such as UAV-based multi-sensor data and machine learning algorithms, and provide an overview of how precision breeding technologies like genome editing can
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 260-269 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 261 enhance soybean yield. The research focuses on investigating the effectiveness of sensor-based nutrient and irrigation management, integrating physiological principles with environmental data to optimize farm management, and identifying practical solutions to improve soybean productivity. Ultimately, this study aims to contribute to global food security and promote sustainable farming practices. 2 Precision Agriculture Technologies for Soybean 2.1 Overview of precision agriculture Precision agriculture involves the use of advanced technologies to monitor and manage field variability in crops, aiming to optimize returns on inputs while preserving resources. This approach includes the use of GPS, GIS, remote sensing, and various sensors to collect data on soil and crop conditions, which can then be used to make informed decisions about planting, fertilizing, and irrigating crops (Hedley, 2015; Smidt et al., 2016). The goal is to enhance crop productivity and resource-use efficiency, ensuring sustainable agricultural practices (Figure 1). Figure 1 Precision tillage of soybean crops (Photo credit: Yuting Zhong) 2.2 GPS and GIS technologies in soybean farming GPS and GIS technologies are fundamental to precision agriculture, providing accurate location data and spatial analysis capabilities. These technologies enable farmers to create detailed maps of their fields, showing variations in soil properties, crop health, and yield. This spatial information allows for site-specific management practices, such as variable rate seeding and fertilization, which can optimize input use and improve crop yields (Hedley, 2015; Smidt et al., 2016). The integration of GPS with variable rate technology (VRT) has enabled precise application of inputs, reducing waste and increasing efficiency. 2.3 Remote sensing and drones for yield monitoring Remote sensing technologies, including the use of drones, have revolutionized yield monitoring in soybean farming. Drones equipped with multispectral and hyperspectral sensors can capture high-resolution images of fields, providing valuable data on crop health and growth stages. This data can be used to estimate yields accurately and identify areas needing attention (Eugenio et al., 2020; Skakun et al., 2021; Ren et al., 2023). Machine learning algorithms further enhance the predictive power of remote sensing data, allowing for more precise yield estimations and better decision-making (Maimaitijiang et al., 2020). 2.4 Soil sensors and variable rate technology (VRT) Soil sensors play a crucial role in precision agriculture by providing real-time data on soil moisture, nutrient levels, and other critical parameters. This information is essential for implementing variable rate technology (VRT),
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 260-269 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 262 which adjusts the application rates of water, fertilizers, and other inputs based on the specific needs of different field zones (Hedley, 2015; Sachin et al., 2023a). VRT helps in optimizing input use, improving crop health, and increasing yields while minimizing environmental impact. 2.5 Automation and robotics in soybean production Automation and robotics are emerging technologies in precision agriculture, offering the potential to further enhance efficiency and productivity in soybean farming. Automated systems can perform tasks such as planting, weeding, and harvesting with high precision and consistency. Robotics can also be integrated with other precision agriculture tools, such as GPS and sensors, to perform site-specific management practices autonomously. These technologies reduce labor costs and increase operational efficiency, contributing to higher yields and better resource management (Hedley, 2015; Smidt et al., 2016). Precision agriculture technologies, including GPS, GIS, remote sensing, soil sensors, and automation, are transforming soybean farming by enabling more precise and efficient management of inputs. These technologies help optimize resource use, improve crop health, and increase yields, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices. The integration of these advanced tools into soybean production systems holds great promise for the future of agriculture. 3 Genetic and Environmental Interactions in Soybean Yield 3.1 Genetic improvement in soybean varieties Genetic improvement in soybean varieties has been a cornerstone of agricultural advancements, aiming to enhance yield potential and stability. Plant breeders have successfully released varieties with improved yield potential through performance-based selection, even without a complete understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved (Vogel et al., 2021). Recent studies have utilized machine learning and genetic optimization algorithms to model and optimize soybean yield by analyzing key yield component traits such as the number of nodes and pods per plant (Yoosefzadeh-Najafabadi et al., 2021). Additionally, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and genomic selection (GS) have identified specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with yield and related traits, providing valuable markers for breeding programs (Ravelombola et al., 2021). The integration of conventional and molecular breeding techniques, including CRISPR-based genome editing, has opened new avenues for soybean yield and quality improvement (Figure 2) (Gai et al., 2021). Figure 2 The main breeding targets in soybean are yield, quality improvement and diseases resistance (Adopted from Gai et al., 2021)
Bioscience Evidence 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 260-269 http://bioscipublisher.com/index.php/be 263 3.2 Environmental factors affecting soybean growth Environmental factors play a significant role in soybean growth and yield. Factors such as water availability, nutrient management, and climatic conditions can greatly influence physiological processes and yield outcomes. Precision nutrient and irrigation management have been shown to enhance physiological performance, water productivity, and yield in soybean crops (Sachin et al., 2023a; Sachin et al., 2023b). The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and remote sensing data has improved the accuracy of yield estimation by incorporating environmental variables such as maturity group information and vegetation indices (Ren et al., 2023). Furthermore, understanding genotype-by-environment interactions is crucial for developing stable and high-yielding soybean cultivars. Studies have identified specific genomic regions associated with these interactions, providing insights into how different genotypes perform under varying environmental conditions (Xavier et al., 2017). 3.3 Integrating precision agriculture with genomic tools Integrating precision agriculture with genomic tools offers a promising approach to soybean yield improvement. Precision agriculture techniques, such as sensor-based nutrient and irrigation management, can optimize resource use and enhance crop productivity (Sachin et al., 2023b). Combining these techniques with genomic tools like GWAS and GS allows for the identification of favorable alleles and the development of high-yielding, environmentally resilient soybean varieties (Ravelombola et al., 2021). Machine learning algorithms have also been employed to predict soybean yield by analyzing data from multiple sensors and growth stages, further enhancing the precision of yield estimation (Eugenio et al., 2020; Herrero-Huerta et al., 2020). The integration of these technologies enables a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing soybean yield and facilitates the development of targeted breeding strategies for yield improvement. Genetic and environmental interactions significantly impact soybean yield, and advancements in both areas are crucial for yield improvement. Genetic improvements through conventional and molecular breeding techniques, coupled with precision agriculture practices, offer a holistic approach to enhancing soybean productivity. Integrating genomic tools with precision agriculture technologies provides a powerful framework for optimizing yield and developing resilient soybean varieties. 4 Case Study: Precision Agriculture in a Soybean Farm in the Midwest 4.1 Background of the farm The soybean farm under study is located in the Midwest, a region known for its fertile soil and favorable climate for soybean cultivation. The farm spans approximately 500 hectares and has been operational for over two decades. Traditionally, the farm employed conventional farming practices, but in recent years, it has transitioned to precision agriculture techniques to enhance productivity and sustainability. 4.2 Application of GPS and VRT for soil and water management The farm utilizes Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and Variable Rate Technology (VRT) to optimize soil and water management. GPS allows for precise mapping of field variability, enabling targeted interventions. VRT is used to adjust seeding rates, fertilizer application, and irrigation based on soil characteristics and crop needs. This approach has led to more efficient use of resources and improved crop performance (Hedley, 2015; Smidt et al., 2016). 4.3 Use of remote sensing for pest and disease detection Remote sensing technologies, including multispectral and hyperspectral imaging from UAVs and satellites, are employed to monitor crop health and detect pest and disease outbreaks early. These technologies provide real-time data on vegetation indices such as NDVI, which are crucial for assessing plant health and stress levels. Early detection through remote sensing allows for timely and targeted pest and disease management, reducing crop losses and improving yield (Figure 3) (Zhang et al., 2015; Eugenio et al., 2020; Skakun et al., 2021).
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