International Journal of Marine Science, 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 304-311 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ijms 307 in ocean-observing systems and supporting the management of ocean resources. Cost-effective in situ sensors have emerged, driven by advancements in miniaturization and mass production, enabling large-scale deployments and high-resolution data collection (Organelli et al., 2019). These technologies are crucial for understanding complex system processes and rapidly evolving changes in ocean biogeochemistry. Figure 1 Development of foundation species algorithms for moderate spectral resolution, higher spatial resolution sensors (Adopted from Kavanaugh et al., 2021) Image caption: (a) Mean macrocystis canopy biomass derived from Landsat satellite sensors. (b) Kelp persistence for San Miguel Island, California, using kelp canopy data derived from Landsat sensors. (c) Sentinel-2 composite image of the Florida Keys region where MBON surveys are regularly conducted. (d) Instrument used for in situ measurements of upwelling and downwelling irradiances above a patch reef during a field campaign in May 22, 2012, near Sugarloaf Key (red marker in c). (e) Reflectances over different depths above seagrasses. (f) Reflectances over different depths above patch reefs (Adopted from Kavanaugh et al., 2021) 4.3 Long-term observational networks Long-term observational networks are vital for monitoring changes in marine ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles over extended periods. The BGC-Argo project is building a global network of autonomous floats that provide continuous, high-quality data on biogeochemical properties. These networks support the evaluation of ongoing changes due to anthropogenic pressures, such as acidification and deoxygenation, and contribute to sustainable ocean management. Additionally, the European Marine Omics Biodiversity Observation Network (EMO BON) aims to establish standardized, coordinated, and long-term omics observation networks to assess biodiversity and ecosystem functioning on a large scale. Such networks enhance observational power and provide structured, comparable data, which are essential for effective conservation measures and sustainable use of marine resources (Santi et al., 2023). 5 Predictive Modeling of Marine Ecosystem Evolution 5.1 Climate models and ocean biogeochemistry Climate models play a crucial role in understanding and predicting the impacts of climate change on marine biogeochemical processes. These models integrate various environmental drivers such as ocean warming, acidification, and oxygen depletion to simulate the responses of marine ecosystems. For instance, process-based models have been developed to quantitatively integrate physiological and ecological processes, thereby advancing research and informing management strategies for marine fish populations (Koenigstein et al., 2016). Biogeochemical models are employed to simulate key ecosystem components like chlorophyll-a, nutrients, carbon, and oxygen cycles across different marine environments, although they still face limitations and assumptions that need addressing (Ismail and Al-Shehhi, 2023).
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