International Journal of Marine Science, 2024, Vol.14, No.4, 245-255 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ijms 247 3.1.3 Influence on surface layer stability The stability of the surface layer is influenced by the interaction between surface waves and the ABL. The heterogeneity in surface roughness caused by internal ocean waves can set up localized shear, enhancing the air-sea momentum flux and affecting the stability of the surface layer. The presence of submesoscale processes, such as oceanic eddies, can induce surface stress anomalies that impact the stability and secondary circulations within the ABL (Sullivan and McWilliams, 2022). The wave boundary layer (WBL) height, determined by the decay rate of wave-induced flux, also plays a role in defining the stability of the surface layer (Cifuentes-Lorenzen et al., 2018). 3.2 Energy exchange processes Energy exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere is a critical aspect of their interaction. The wave-induced momentum flux and the energy extracted from the WBL are closely related, with the decay rate of wave-induced flux being a key parameter. The turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) dissipation in the ocean surface boundary layer (OSBL) is dominated by surface processes, such as wind and waves, which contribute significantly to the energy exchange (Buckingham et al., 2019). The OSBL response to abruptly turning winds involves stages of TKE production and dissipation, highlighting the dynamic nature of energy exchange processes (Wang and Kukulka, 2021). 3.3 Wave breaking and turbulence generation Wave breaking is a significant source of turbulence generation in the ABL. The interaction of wind and waves, particularly under high wind conditions, leads to enhanced turbulent stress and mean wind shear at wave crests. Langmuir turbulence, driven by wind-induced shear and surface waves, manifests as Langmuir cells, which have implications for coastal mixing and turbulence generation. The presence of surface waves and ocean spray also contributes to the generation of turbulence, with ocean spray playing a more dominant role at high wind speeds (Zhang and Song, 2018; Husain et al., 2019; Shrestha and Anderson, 2019). The phase-locked variations in wave and turbulent stresses observed in laboratory experiments further illustrate the complex nature of turbulence generation over wind-generated surface waves (Yousefi et al., 2020). 4 Observational Techniques and Measurements 4.1 In situ observations 4.1.1 Buoy and sensor deployments Buoy and sensor deployments are critical for capturing real-time, continuous, and long-term marine data. Recent advancements have led to the development of low-cost, multi-parameter, miniature wave buoys capable of forming observation arrays. These buoys can measure sea surface parameters such as wind, waves, and currents with high spatial and temporal resolution, significantly enhancing the accuracy of ocean monitoring (Figure 1) (Zhong et al., 2022). Networks of free-drifting satellite-connected surface weather buoys have been deployed to provide extensive coverage and improve model forecast accuracy, demonstrating a 27% reduction in root-mean-square error in significant wave heights (Smit et al., 2021). Laboratory tank tests revealed that these buoys can accurately measure water surface slopes and exhibit good frequency response capabilities compared to traditional wave instruments. In practical applications, these buoys can be deployed in offshore waters for long-term continuous monitoring, effectively improving the spatial coverage of ocean observations. Specifically, the study also analyzed the relationship between wind speed and the low-pass filtered mean square slope (LPMSS) and explored the impact of wave growth stages on LPMSS. The results indicate that by using these micro wave buoys, effective estimation of wind speed and direction can be achieved under varying conditions of wind speed and wave period. 4.1.2 Ship-based measurements Ship-based measurements play a vital role in atmospheric, oceanic, and biogeochemical observations. Ships, including research vessels, merchant ships, and automated surface vessels, are equipped with various sensors to measure essential climate and ocean variables. These measurements are crucial for understanding and forecasting exchanges across the ocean-atmosphere interface. The integration of private and autonomous vessels into the
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