International Journal of Marine Science, 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 231-244 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ijms 239 coral reefs (Feng et al., 2016). Another geoengineering strategy is the use of seaweed and seagrass cultivation. These marine plants can absorb significant amounts of CO2 during photosynthesis, potentially mitigating local acidification effects. Research has indicated that strategically located seaweed farms could enhance carbon sequestration and provide a buffer against ocean acidification in specific areas, such as the Great Barrier Reef (Mongin et al., 2016). However, these approaches must be carefully managed to avoid unintended ecological impacts and ensure that they do not shift the problem elsewhere. 6.3 Local adaptation measures Local adaptation measures are crucial for communities and ecosystems already experiencing the impacts of ocean acidification. These measures include monitoring and early warning systems, habitat restoration, and community engagement. For instance, continuous monitoring of seawater chemistry can help detect changes in pH and carbonate levels, enabling timely responses to mitigate impacts on aquaculture and fisheries (Clements and Chopin, 2017). Restoration of habitats such as seagrass meadows and mangroves can also play a significant role in local mitigation efforts. These habitats not only sequester carbon but also provide essential services like coastal protection and nursery grounds for marine species. Restoring these ecosystems can enhance their resilience to acidification and other stressors (Luan et al., 2023). Engaging local communities in adaptation efforts is critical. Education and outreach programs can raise awareness about ocean acidification and its impacts, fostering community support for mitigation actions. Involving stakeholders in decision-making processes ensures that local knowledge and needs are incorporated into adaptation strategies, enhancing their effectiveness and sustainability (Cross et al., 2019). 7 Policy and Regulatory Responses 7.1 International agreements and frameworks Addressing ocean acidification requires coordinated efforts at international, national, and local levels. This section examines the policy and regulatory frameworks that have been developed to tackle this issue, highlighting international agreements, national and regional policies, and the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs). International agreements play a crucial role in addressing ocean acidification. However, no single international treaty specifically targets ocean acidification. Instead, a fragmented array of international agreements addresses various aspects of this issue. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides a broad framework for marine protection, obligating countries to protect and preserve the marine environment. However, it does not specifically mention ocean acidification (Fennel and VanderZwaag, 2015). The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which indirectly addresses ocean acidification by aiming to stabilize atmospheric CO2 levels. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) also includes measures to protect marine biodiversity, which is threatened by ocean acidification. Furthermore, Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Life Below Water) includes a target to minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels (Harrould-Kolieb and Hoegh‐Guldberg, 2019). Despite these efforts, the lack of a unified treaty specifically addressing ocean acidification presents challenges. Thus, integrating ocean acidification into existing frameworks and promoting international cooperation and policy coherence are critical for effective mitigation and adaptation strategies (Harrould-Kolieb, 2017). 7.2 National and regional policies National and regional policies vary widely in their approach to addressing ocean acidification. In Europe, policies and legislation targeting ocean acidification are generally uncoordinated, with some notable exceptions. For instance, Norway has proactive legislative frameworks and research initiatives aimed at understanding and mitigating ocean acidification. However, most European countries do not adequately address ocean acidification in their Marine Strategy Framework Directive reporting, except for Italy and the Netherlands (Galdies et al., 2020).
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